Institution of Family

Reform, Perform and Transform IV

“Traditional living had been an anchor, keeping our boat in safe harbor. Now that the anchor had gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.”

                                                                                           Vijay Lakshmi Pundit

“A great relationship is about two things, first find out similarities and second, respect the differences.”

Introduction – At present, institution of family is gradually losing its sheen. It is passing through a tough time, because of modernization, industrialization, mechanization, and other developments in the field od science and technology, which try to make life easier than earlier. Modernity should help people to make a living but not a life. Inted it makes them impatient, insensitive and intolerant, and pushes them towards cut-throat competition.

Decline of traditional way of life and too many changes happening in too little time have adversely affected the institution of family. Urbanization, materialism, consumerism, feminism, and desire for more and quick money have made individuals, irrespective of their gender, self-centered and right-conscious. It has given rise to totalitarian ideologies, dishonesty, chasing money blindly, brain drain or creating unbridgeable generation gap. Circumstances have compelled both husband and wife to work for paid jobs. It makes both of them very busy. They hardly get enough time to pay attention or care for well-being of their family members, dependents or friends.

What is family? – Aristotle has said, if a man does not live with men or amongst men, then surely, either he is a god or a beast. System of “Living together” of two or more persons under one roof is the beginning of a family.  They may be related to each other by birth, marriage or adoption.

Living together leads to its progress and working together brings happiness, satisfaction and prosperity. For developing harmonious relationship within family, feelings of caring, sharing and loving each other needs to be developed. Happiness in life depends to a great extent on Quality of family relationship

There is “No choice, No returns. No exchanges” in matter birtn within a particular family. Neither time of the birth changes, nor his destiny or society. Only thing, one can do with fast changing times is to select his/her priorities, values and systems.

Family-support is always there behind a person. Everybody feels safe and secure within a family. Sharing of joys with family members and near and dear ones doubles the happiness. Similarly sharing one’s worries or sorrows lessens the mental strain.  Desire for name, fame or money can bring temporary pleasure, but does not give real happiness.

Protects physical and mental health of individuals – Family creates a strong foundation for emotional as well as physical well-being. It not only protects their bodies but protects their brain as well. When institution of family becomes weak, mental and physical health deteriorates. Quite often, a person goes back to his/her family after day-long hard work and unwinds, rejuvenates, and re-energizes there.

In traditional societies, institution of Marriage starts a family-life. In marriage, what He or She gets in marriage, is honest/responsible life-time companion, who from time to time behaves as an encourager, practical motivator, inspirer, empathizer, challenger, moderator (especially when one becomes biased because of his/her blood relations), a good listener etc. life-log companion. The couple trust each other.  Families can be patriarchal or matriarchal on the basis of authority. There are following types of families existing in modern times:

• Extended family
• Joint family,
• Nuclear family,
• Same sex family,
• Single parent family,
• Stepfamily
• Grand-parents family

With marriages rate down and divorce rates up, cases of children, growing up under the care of single parent family are continuously rising. In such cases, especially single mothers have to face many kinds of problems. Such as –

• Difficulties in getting employment due to non-friendly policies of job-market in giving employment to single women, especially single mothers.
• Lesser pay packets.
• Financially constraints to meet all the expenses alone.

Characteristics of a family – Characteristics of a family are:

• Acceptance, loyalty and support to each other,
• Form of marriage or a mating relationship,
• Common habitation,
• System of interaction and communication,
• Togetherness. Sense of belonging, Concerns with Emotions, emotional bias
• Clear expectations.
• Free and frank communication and interaction
• Discipline, Patience/tolerance for each other.
• Togetherness. Team-spirit, loving, caring and sharing with each-other.
• Economic support along with mental and physical wellness.

The basic functions of family – The basic functions of family are, to –

• Creates life-long comfort zone for all its members.
• Health care.
• Natural and informal centre of learning skills and educating.
• Regulate sexual access and activity,
• Provide an orderly context for procreation.
• Nurture and socialize children.
• Ensure economic stability. And
• Gives an identity in society and ascribe social status.

Is really the institution of family losing its sheen? – At present, Institution of family has started losing its sheen. Earlier, 4-5 generations lived together under one roof. Today, mostly nuclear family system is preferred, which allows only husband, wife and their dependent children to live under one roof.  Familial responsibilities are being outsourced continuously to companies, Governmental or non-governmental institutions, elderly care to old age homes, childcare to day-care/cheche, education and training to school and training centres, health care to hospitals etc. Institution of marriage, itself, is on the verge of breakdown. ‘Home, Sweet Home’ does not mean just a bedroom.

Institution of family America and India

Family-structure in Western societies – Western societies are the classic example of the breakdown of the institution of Family. Their progressive modern way of living may be a lesson to all. Some Economists of 1980s had warned the world about the challenges, that institution of family is facing. But very few people paid any attention to it. Eating outside has become fashionable among modern, educated and middle-class families. Eating outside causes mental and health problems. It is susceptible to infection and unnecessary expenditure. Physical health and mental health are necessary for happiness and prosperity. These developments have led to the almost extinction of American families.

Gone are the days of extended family, joint family or nuclear family there. Now is the time of live-in relationships (co-habitation, where couple lives together in sexual relationship without marriage), single-parents-households (with marriage rates going down, and divorce-rates up), reconstituted families or living with stepfamilies.

It is said that in US, women make up 15% of single households, men 12% of single family, 19%homes are owned by Dad or Mom only. 6% are in living-together relationships. 41% babies are born to unwed women. About 50% of first marriages end in divorce, 67% of second marriages and 74% of third marriages.

There, the institution of family has lost much of its sheen. Some of the reasons are increasing trend of materialism and consumerism due to industrialization, developments in science and technology, both the couples working formally outside the home, geographical and occupational mobility due to urbanization and brain-drain. 

In India –The situation in India is a little different so far. Up till 20^th century, institution of family has played a big role in India. Living of 4-5 generations under one roof under one roof was quite common. Values and systems of family life have been deeply influenced by eternal value system Sanatan Dharma. Institutions of marriage and families are still rooted in its Sanatan Dharma.

Historical background of the institution of family in Inda – Structure of family has taken different shades with changing times and places. Now its character is different in the context of village, locality, region or religion. The institution of family has been evolved in a natural way over thousands of years.

Pastoral Tribal Society – Beginning of the institution of family can be traced from the times of pastoral tribal society. Pastoral Tribal Society was nomadic or semi nomadic and egalitarian. Institutions that existed at that time were family, clan, village, tribe and a group of tribes.

Agricultural Society – When Pastoral tribal society transformed into a settled agricultural society sometime during 6th century BC. Practice of cultivation, rise of crafts and iron tools changed the shape of society.

Initially, a simple class division existed in the social structure, nobility and the ordinary tribesmen.  Intermixing with Aryans gave rise to the division of society into four Varna on the basis of their work or occupations, later on with caste system.

About fifth century BCE, trade especially of metals, fine textiles, salt, pottery and always, horses flourished. New commercial classes emerged. Such a system fostered greater personal freedom and mobility, nurturing individual as well as social groups – the traders, the shopkeeper, the artisan, or the government official. Pastoral chiefdoms gave way to hierarchically ordered settlements organized into states. The emergent system recognized the authority of village, guild, family and provincial custom…  (Wendy Doniger, The Hindus an Alternative History, pp 165-166)

The first faint trace of caste is to be found in the careful cataloguing of traders and professions in later Vedic literature. Many traders were organized into guilds around 5th century AD, in which some authorities have seen the origin of commercial castes. Up to 7th century AD, people showed no clear knowledge of the existence of castes. Zhuan Tsang, in the Seventh century, was aware of the existence of Varna, but not of castes. Later on, instead of Varna, caste became a dominant factor, a natural unit of Hindu society, running through the entire fabric of its social structure.

Agricultural society leisurely evolved its structures and systems over about 2000 years and kept on coping with the slow changes, time brought in. System of possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started. Institutions of kings or head of different groups emerged to protect their groups and to collect surplus yields of farmers.   The power of kings gradually increased.

Caste system has provided a mechanism, by which numerous discrete tribes could be taken up as entire communities into the society. It came into existence, when numerous racial and other social groups – be it racial, immigrants, locals, tribal or professional desired to join the main-steam of the nation and be an integral part of their cultural system. It took thousands of years to evolve. It was done cordially through caste-system at different points of time.

Values, systems and way of living of various newly joining groups have been preserved and internalized within the whole. It had created a plural society. The beauty of the system was that the main society as a whole remained stable, even while offering place to new groups (be it racial, social, occupational, or religious) within the mainstream. [i]

Basham says, Caste system may well be called a natural response to many small and primitive groups of people, who were forced to come to terms, with a more advanced economic and social system.  Each group maintained its own rules, regulations, customs, ways of life and controlled the conduct of its members. Different castes found their place under a Varna. This way, with changing times, institutions of family, extended family, Kula, Caste and religion progressed in the past in a natural way. [i] Institutions of extended family and joint families were common during this period. Developments were in conformity with time and forces of nature, which affected the circumstances of the people.

Sanatan Dharma (a compact life package) – Keeping in view the felt needs of the people at different stages of life, in conformity with time and forces of nature, which affects circumstances of human beings, Sanatan Dharma has formulated a scheme. It is applicable to all, irrespective of the Varna, caste or creed for all time to come. Even today, it is as relevant as it was earlier.

Of all the stages of life, Sanatan Dharma gives a high place of honour to family-life. While offering opportunities to householder for full enjoyment of life, he is liable to make contribution and society becomes recipient. It establishes direct contact of a person with the rest of society. It means that He is responsible for proper management, care, financial help and needs of his dependents, which include elders, children, members of extended family and strangers in need of help. Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and people were closer to nature, they could follow Sanatan Dharma without much hassle.  But as the atmosphere has become more complex and moral values have eroded, it is difficult to observe it sincerely.

Institution of Family in Modern times – An individual is a natural member of a family. Family has always been an integral part of extended family, extended family of Kula, Kula, clan (Vish) and tribe of a Jana of Jati (Caste).  In this way, family extended family, Kula, Caste and religion are the fundamental social institutions for all.

Family widens a person’s social radius. It gives inner strength and confidence to accept the challenges and make efforts to come over it. A person gets recognition, solid base and importance in his/her private and occupational life.   

Extended family – System of extended families living together in the same local area is a thing of past. They are scattered. Causes of disintegration of extended families are –

• Industrialization,
• Urbanization,
• Education,
• Freedom to Women, earlier they were illiterate & confined to kitchen.
• Impact of western
• Changes in marriage system,
• Over population.

In modern India, it gave way to two types of family system, joint families and nuclear families.

Joint family – Joint family consists of grand-parents, parents and their children, who live in the same house under one roof. Salient features of joint families are –

• Large in size,
• Joint property,
• Togetherness, common kitchen and living together brings happiness, protection and growth in the family and builds confidence.
• Common worship.
• Sanatan Dharma gives a clear vision of each one’s rights and duties.
• Close blood ties.
• More economic-friendly. With multiple earning individuals, income of the family adds up.
• Head of the family responsible to keep discipline within family. His words are final. Dependent members are answerable to the head of the family.

In modern times, joint families have become unpopular, because of –

• Conflicts or family quarrels over unequal distribution of work at home and personnel clashes between women,
• Heartburning over family property, its income and expenditure,
• Loss of privacy.
• Stressful for weak women,
• Young mothers are deprived of taking decisions for the future of their child.
• Child marriage.

Sense of dependence – Sence of dependence kills not only the self-respect of a person but freedom to take one’s own decisions and conscience also. As compared to joint family system, nuclear family system gives more freedom to individuals.

Nuclear Family System – Traditional Nuclear family can be seen as dominant form of family these days. It consists of a husband-wife and their children.

Advantages

• Builds confidence and gives opportunities for personality development to all.
• Women is empowered to take her own decisions.
• Smaller families, lesser expenditure/cost of living.
• It creates a stronger emotional bond between parents and children. Allows better communication between them.
• Parents can pay more attention to the education, training, extracurricular activities and career prospects of their children.
• Children get tension-free atmosphere to earn good scores in schools.
• Nuclear families make children more independent and responsible.
• Allows better communication between family members.

Disadvantages – Average incomes of have risen, but different kinds of difficulties are also up, which are hindering smooth functioning of nuclear-family, like

• Instead of arranged marriages, love marriage is the present trend. It has brought many changes in family structure like changes in marital roles, bias in favour of Her family and no tolerance for in-laws-family. His old parents have no option other than to live on their own independently or go to old homes.
• Quite often, isolation produces tensions and leads children glued to television/social media, no attachment for near relatives, no respect for elders, negative behaviour, more peer pressure, juvenile delinquency and other juvenile problems etc.
• Attracted towards mechanized and artificial lifestyle, far away from nature.
• Dependence on market-economy for basic necessities
• Rise in cases of health matters, divorces and depression
• There is rise in divorce cases,
• Balance responsibilities of workplace and household.
• Sense of loneliness.
• Children are glued to social media. In joint families, elderly give child-care and take charge of the welfare of children.

Nuclear family – Under the influence of modernity, more and more Indians are copying the family-culture of Western societies. There is sharp increase in the number of women, joining labour force. Family formation, for both husband and wife working outside for paid jobs is changing. It has taken a U-turn to balance responsibilities at workplace and of familial liabilities.

Responsibilities of cooking, education and training, child-care and protection to senior citizens are preferred to be given to outside agencies. Increasingly, both career-minded men and women prefer first to establish themselves and then enter into family life. Number of senior citizens is much more than before.

It is becoming fashionable among educated middle-class families to eat outside food. It causes health problems, susceptibility to infection and unnecessary expenditure.

Modernity has taught humans to make a living but not a life. A few common practices can help people build a strong, happy and healthy family. A Human-being is a social animal. Without companion/near and dear ones, one becomes very lonely.

It is difficult to imagine how lonely and emotionally suffocated humans irrespective of their age group be it a child, a youth or an elderly person. CHILDREN are deprived of the pleasures of childhood because of heavy curriculum and high expectations of parents. Young people mostly suffer from anxiety and frustration to meet two ends, responsibilities at workplace and familial obligations. Senior citizens, at the fag-end of their life, suffer from loneliness the most. They have virtually no connection with younger generation because of their busy schedule. Thus, people of all age-groups are bottled up with stress and suffer from anxiety or depression. Life becomes a constant struggle for youth and hell old people. Increasing cases of depression all over the world is the proof.

Ego and tendency of not trusting others or fear of being rejected compel him to hold back his emotions. Heart to heart conversations have become rare.  artificial and shallow. To keep family honour intact, people usually talk/behave artificially. It hardly lessens stress, anxiety or depression.

It is an irony of modern times that people have lots of friends on electronic medium/social media/face-book/words-ap. etc., but there is no one to rely on. It causes stress anxiety and depression. Mental and physical health of lonely persons decline quite fast. Society also does not regard them as normal.

What prevents? – Main hurdles on the way of a happy family are false ego, fear, unfulfilled expectations, rat-race giving rise to prejudices, anger and revenge. Besides –  

• No time or patience – In fast-paced life of today, life is so busy and fast that nobody has time or patience to listen. It is considered as waste of time. ‘Get to the point’ is the base of communicating with others. Such an attitude takes toll on family-relationships. It makes most people unsocial, and self-serving.
• Faceless interaction – Today, usually through digital medium, family-members communicate with each-other. Electronic speedy means of communication has led the world through electronic medium Heart to heart conversation is missing. In the cards game of Bridge, there is a phony call of one club indicating that the player has a strong set of cards, but no depth in any suit. Similarly, face to face interaction has been replaced by new modes of digital and online communication. The result is –
  • Slave of technology – Instead of being masters, people have become slave of technology.
  • Feeling of caring and sharing their happiness and sorrows are missing.  
  • Phony relationships – There are quick, easier and more contacts through networking at very little or no cost, but has dis-connected even the family-members. The moment people open their computers or mobile, they forget about the presence of people sitting around them.
  • Understanding about each other, missing in Faceless interactions – Faceless interaction on phones has made people insensitive. Every-day a humans talk to hundreds of people, yet they hardly understand much about the person they are talking to. Face-to face interaction enables people to know the reactions, thoughts and feelings of others. It becomes easier to understand others, while talking face to face by watching their body-language, or expressions on face. It connects a person with others and can make a difference in life. People can develop a sense of belonging to the society, companionship and can learn to co-exist.
  • Smart phones and dump people – Interaction through Smart phones have made people quite insensitive. In this fast-paced life, nobody has time or patience to listen others point of view.  ‘Get to the point’ is the trend of communicating with others.

• How to develop Harmonious relationships – The foundation pillars for making a family happy and strong, are compassion, empathy love, understanding, trust, confidence, faith, sincerity and similar interests. It basically depends on –

  • Institution of marriage – A traditional family starts with marriage. Institution of marriage teaches to let go ego and ignore the flaws of the partner and appreciate qualities for the sake of love. It teaches both men and women to be together in thick and thins despite difference of opinion and motivate the partner to do better in life. It teaches them to be loving, caring and be patient. It prepares the mind-set of couple to welcome and raise their kids.
  • Couples – After marriage, what a person gets is an honest and responsible life-long companion/partner, an encourager, practical motivator, empathizer, challenger and a good listener. There are occasions in life when one becomes irrationally biased because of his/her blood relations, they play the role of adviser for each other. If the partner listens it is ok, otherwise give each other space to do what they want.
  • Respect differences – Each one within a family is unique, incomparable. Nobody is superior, or inferior, and nobody equal either. All members are just like five fingers in a hand. When people interact with like-minded people, who have the same goals or thinking, they develop compassion for each other. 
  • Family-relationship, reciprocal – Harmony within a family develops, when relationship follows the principle of ‘Division of labour’ and ‘give and take’. Both man & women learn to be loving, caring and be polite and stick to each other through their thick and thins.
  • Marriage makes Him or Her realize the value of sacrifice and compromise and makes couple stand behind each other like a solid rock in times of difficulties.
  • Mother’s role in a family is to give tender care to her babies and toddlers.
  • Father goes through many hardships and does sacrifices for taking care of the needs of his child.
  • Siblings teaches the art of loving, caring and sharing.
  • Children makes elders of the family selfless and think about their future before their own wishes.
  • Grandchildren gives heavenly pleasure through their innocent actions, talks, and behaviour.
  • Friends makes one tolerant to people with different opinions and viewpoints.
  • According to ‘Sanatan Dharma’ of Hindu philosophy, there are following stages in human life –
    • Infancy or childhood – It is the birth right of a newcomer in this cosmic world to get parental care with love and affection. Parents are the givers and baby/toddler are the receivers.
    • Stage of learning and developing personality (5-6 to 20-25) – This the period of strict discipline, learning and acquisition of knowledge. Family rears, protects and gives its best to youngsters. Here family is the giver and individual recipient.
    • Married life – This phase of life is the most energetic one. Thes phase of life is the real ground to utilize one’s intellectual, physical and economic capabilities. They are responsible to take proper care of their dependents, which include elders, children, members of extended family and strangers in need of help. This is the time for individuals to socialize and take active part in socio-economic and political activities of the nation and to fulfill their dreams and ambitions. It presents opportunities to practice and cultivate all the three Dharmas – Artha, Kama (fulfillment of duties and financial and material success for full enjoyment of life). Proper management of the internal matters of family, and fulfilling the needs of all family members, younger or older, and to support directly or indirectly is the responsibility of the head of the family. At this stage of life, married couples are the contributors and family or society is the recipient.  
    • Senior citizens life – It is a neutral phase of life. Task assigned to this group is teaching Dharma and extended care. Material success is not aim. They should practice resignation and renunciation.
  • Communication is the lifeline of harmonious relationship. Communication should be adequate, timely, uniform, acceptable and consistent with the expectations of the recipient. Not only, that what is communicated, matters, but when it is communicated and how it is communicated also matters a lot. What is ‘communicated’ reaches to mind. How it is said reaches to heart.

  Relationship gets adversely affected due to lack of free and frank communication. Gaps widens, when there is a lack of communication or communication is not clear. “Between what is said and not meant, and what is meant and not said, most of love is lost.” (Khalil Gibran) So –

  • • Be honest and natural, no artificial gesture to show closeness.
    • Respect the traditional way of living. It is like an anchor, which keeps one’s boat even in the stormy water of an ocean. Do not discard or reject it out-rightly.
    • Besides try to trust others, keep good communication to develop healthy relationships, have patience to listen what others want to say. Do not reject their point of view out-rightly.
    • Gaps are created, not by what is said, but by how it is said. What is said reaches to mind and how it is said reaches to heart.
    • Life provides opportunities to convert them into developing harmonious relationships. Only one has to move forward, cross the road and shake hands with the near and dear ones.  

  Happiness depends on balanced and harmonious relationship and harmonious relationship depends on coordination. And coordination depends on adequate communication with fellow beings. All the problems and unhappiness, be it environmental, social, economic, political or health-related, arise out of disharmony, imbalances and lack of coordination.

  Conclusion – People are dreaming to reach up to the moon and back but find no time to take even one step crossing the road to meet and chat freely with their Neighbour or relatives. Lack of enough communication has made people insensitive, impatient and self-centred. People are missing the chances of little pleasures in life.

  Free, frank, honest and heart to heart communication/conversation with near and dear ones is necessary, to save humans from depression or overjoy or emotional loneliness, harmonious relationship and. Rhythm with others can be achieved by cool and heart to heart conversation. Sharing of joys with near and dear ones doubles the happiness. Similarly sharing one’s worries or sorrows lessens the mental strain.

[i]            Basham, Wonder That Was India, p 151.

[i]            Hutton, Caste in India:Its Nature, Functions and Origin, p 101.

Management of Employers and Employees relationship

Reform, perform and transform III

Journey of Jajmani system In India

(Management of Employers and Employees relationship)

The purpose of “Development is to help people live longer, more productive and fulfilling lives. This simple and powerful truth is too often forgotten, in the pursuit of material and financial Wealth. Economic growth, that does not have people at its center, is development without soul”. Mahbubal Haq

“Your work is going to fill a large part of your life. The only way to be truly satisfied in life is to do what you believe is great work. And the only way to do great work is to love what you do.” – Steve Jobs

“Asato Maa Sad-Gamaya, Tamaso Maa Jyotir-Gamaya” (Lead us from Ignorance to Truth, from Darkness to Light)

Introduction – Employment for all is a distant dream even today. Something somewhere is wrong, which needs to be addressed soon. Aversion from their traditional occupations has rendered millions unemployed or under-employed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employment is increasing day by day because of population explosion. Instead of being facilitator and making youth employable, government itself has taken charge of creating jobs and employing them, whether required or not. Purpose is to create vote-banks.

Industrialization and developments in the fields of science and technology has given rise to unlimited new occupations especially in service-sector, but access to them depends on degrees and certificates.

It will be interesting to know as to when and how jajmani system originated. Jajmani system is Division of labour and Management of relationship between employers and employees in a local area. It is a very old and indigenous system, conceptualized, developed and practiced exclusively in India. Jajmani arrangements and relationship originated long long ago, when pastoral tribal society in India was transformed into a settled agricultural society. Tribes and clans had settled down permanently in different parts of the country, confining their activities within a small area or territory.  As reflected in ‘Rigveda’, during early stages of Vedic Age people ceased to be a wandering people, started a settled life. Since then, has travelled a very long distance experiencing many ups and downs.

Initially there was a simple division of labour occupation-wise, i.e., employers (Yajmans) and their helpers/employees (kamins or Parja). Slowly, possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started. People started producing and possessing more than they needed. As time passed on, there have been continuous changes in the need of people and society. Accordingly changed the relationships between employers and employees, pattern of employment, nature of occupations, strategy, structure, management techniques and work-culture. Different systems and principles have been evolved for the better future. They remain in vogue for some time, then fade and give way to new structures, systems and concepts.

To keep pace with the time, traditional Jajmani system keeps on changing its arrangements and work-culture. Jajmani system has not become obsolete so far. It exists even now in modern India, but in different form. It has neither been restricted by law nor is in practice everywhere all-over the country. It is found most notably in villages, small cities or and at outskirts of metros of India. It is also found at many places such as in Sri Lanka, Pakistan etc. Many Caste-councils follow customary rules/traditional practices in case of any dispute between Employer and employees. Age-old customs, traditions and guidance of Elders keep on making necessary changes/adjustments, in case of any confusion, difference of opinion or dispute. Jajmani system is still the backbone of rural economy and social order In India.

What Jajmani system Is? – Jajmani system is a unique arrangement of managing relationship between employers and employees. It is an ancient Pre-industrial, Traditional, Socio-economic, Varna/caste-based, Self-sufficient, Local institution. Traditional occupational arrangements under jajmani system tries to keep cordial relationship between EMPLOYER & EMPLOYEES, SERVICE-TAKERS and SERVICE-GIVERS, HAVES and HAVE-NOTS, so that together they can provide to their respective local societies, a quality of life by organizing its socio-economic activities. Jajmani system can be said to be based on a patron-client model rather than MASTER & SERVANTS, SUPERIOR or INFERIOR CLASS, HIGH or LOW in STATUS castes.

Wiser was the first to use the term Jajmani for inter-caste and inter-familial system in his book Hindu jajmani system 1936. ‘Jajman’ (one who receives the service, Employer) and ‘Kamin’ (Service-providers/Employees) are integral part of Jajmani system. In agricultural societies, Jajman meant land-owning caste and Kamin, serving groups/castes. Now, the terms ‘Jajman’ is commonly used for all Employers, who hires services and Kamin, Parja for labour force.

Jajmani system manages basic socio-economic activities in Indian villages and small cities, regulates inter-relationship of different occupation-based castes and service-receiving castes locally. It caters the needs of both employers and employees. Families of an occupational based castes (Kamins) provide their services to employers belonging to other castes (Jajmans). In return of the services of Kamins’ family/families, Jajmans protect/help Kamins family, whenever needed and shares their happiness and sorrows as family members. From both the sides, this relationship continues generation after generation. Their relationship is more like father and son relationship.

Jajmani system works well in areas, wherever lifestyle of people is simple, and people have not been caught within the web of modernity. There it can keep day to day relations of all social groups, harmonious.

Earlier, there was not much disparity between “Haves” and “Have-nots”. People of all castes were bound together by economic and social ties and had a strong bond of mutual dependence. There was not much confusion, unhealthy rivalry or frustration on matter of work, because everybody had his traditional occupation. Instead of holding others responsible for their unemployment, the system blamed “Adharma” (immoral behavior), “Alasya” (laziness) and “Agyan” (ignorance) for unemployment and all evils like exploitation, poverty and helplessness that follow unemployment automatically.

Opinion of scholars on Jajmani system – A number of studies have been conducted on jajmani system in India. The first detailed study of Jajmani tradition in India was made by William H. Wiser. Other important studies on this system are of N.S. Reddy’s study on North India in 1955, W.H. Wiser’s study in 1936, Prof. S.C. Dubey’s study in Hyderabad; D.N. Majumdar’s study (1958) in Lucknow of U.P., Katheline Cough’s (1955) study in Tanjore, Darling’s study (1934) In Punjab etc.

Oskar Lewis says “‘Under the system, each caste group within a village is expected to give certain standardised services to the families of other castes. Each one works for certain family or group of families with whom he is hereditary linked’.

Edmund R. Leach (1960) accepts that, “Jajmani system maintains and regulates the division of labour and economic interdependence of caste.” Under it, different activities needed for maintenance and growth of the society, are assigned to different castes, according to its natural endowment, qualities and aptitudes. Since society itself assigns everybody a specific task to do, it gave a feeling to all, that they are integral parts of the society. Each one earns a rightful place in the society and can live with dignity and honour, with the feeling that they, too, are contributing something to the society.

William H. Wiser (1967) says, “Jajmani system serves to maintain the Indian village as a self-sufficient community.” Local character of jajmani arrangements made each and every area self-sufficient and capable to fulfil all the needs of its people locally. By its very nature, it encouraged the development and preservation of local skills. Local character and semi-autonomous nature of the system made close interaction and cooperation between different groups a reality. Not a single group could claim to be self-sufficient, capable to survive alone and fulfil all its needs.

According to Harold Gould (1987), “Jajmani system distributes agricultural produce, in exchange for menial and craft services.” It is only half-truth. Jajmans not only provide kamin with food and shelter, but also share their happiness and sorrows. They are liable to care and welfare of their Kamins, safeguard their interests and save them from exploitation at the hands of others. Whenever required jajman advances loans or gifts to Kamins at time of festivals and other similar occasions. In return, kamins serve their Jajmans with full dedication and devotion. It develops human relationship between employer and employees.

Yogendra Singh describes Jajmani system, as a system governed by relationship based on reciprocity in inter-caste- relation. Service relations between Jajman and Kamin are governed by customary laws. Ishwaran has said, that it is a system in which each caste has a role to play in a community life as a whole. This role consists of economic, social and moral functions.

According to N.S. Reddy, “Jajmani jobs are considered to be proprietary. When a person has no son but only daughter, the rights are passed on to the son-in-law. If one has no daughter as well, it is passed on to the next nearest relative”.

Harold Gould also says, Jajmani system was “Inter-familial inter-caste relationship pertaining to the patterning of super- ordinate-subordinate relations between patrons and suppliers of services. Patrons are the families of clean castes while the suppers of services are the families of lower and unclean caste”. There is only half-truth in this comment. Respect or honour in Jajmani system is not dependent on being born in clean castes or unclean castes. Persons born in so-called un-clean castes were accepted and revered as philosophers or spiritual teachers. Great respect is earned by them as a right, in- spite of their being from humblest origin. For example, Sage Vashishta was the son of Uravshi, a prostitute, but he is highly respected all-over India as the principal of the conservative school of Brahmanism. So was ‘Kshatriya’ Vishwamitra, the maker of the Gayatri Mantra, the quintessence of the Vedic Brahmanism, is recited even as of today almost in every house every day and on all auspicious occassions. Aitreya, after whom the sacramental part of Rig-Veda is named as Aitreya Brahamana, was the son from a non-Aryan wife of a Brahman sage. Vyasa of Mahabharata fame was the son of a fish-woman. Balmiki, the original author of Ramayana, was an untouchable according to present standards, but is still highly respected.

Formation of occupational groups was not very uncommon. During Medieval period, England and many other European nations also had associations of craftsmen and merchants, known as Guild System, which promoted socio-economic interests of their members as well as provided protection and mutual aid. So was it in ancient and medieval India. (Shore Fredrick John Notes on India Affairs Vol II P.473).

Characteristics Of Jajmani system – Following are the main features of jajmani system –

• Community-based not individual- based – It does not give much choice to individuals to decide about their occupation. Whereas Modern system of employment gives freedom to individuals to choose any job of their liking.
• Hereditary – Jajmani ties are hereditary. Relationship between the families if employers and employees continue generation after generation. Jajmani rights were inherited on both sides or equally distributed among the successors of the deceased jajman or kamins. When there is separation in a family, it takes care of the rights of both parties and divides it like any other property of the family.
• Durable or permanent relations – Jajmani ties between employer (Jajman) and employees (Kamins) are not based on contract or temporary, it is a permanent relationship between families that continue to exist over time. During their spare time, kamins, depending upon his nature of work, can serve more families. For example, a barber can serve in more than one village. Payments also fluctuates according to the position of supply and supply, their skills and labour.
• Regulates division of labour and socio-economic interdependence of castes, (Edmund leech). Scope of employees’ work depends on demands.
• It is functional – It gives security to employees and ensures a regular and uninterrupted service to employers. It creates tension-free atmosphere by giving peace and satisfaction to both.
• Castes are paid mostly in kind or cash in exchange for menial and craft services rather than hard cash.
• Inter-dependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life.
• Satisfied both, the service-givers as well service-takers and maintains harmonious relations between higher and lower castes.
• Integration of different social groups, ie, castes. Keeps each and every local area self-sufficient (Wiser).
• Ideology of Parentalism guides Employer and employee relationship.

In the present scenario as well, traditional jajmani system facilitates enough employment opportunities to all individuals willing to work. It encourages them to go for their hereditary/traditional occupations.

Plusses and minuses of Jajmani system – Jajmani system consists of both protective and exploitative elements. Neither traditional nor modern method of employment is fool-proof or flawless. Both have their own strength, weaknesses and professional hazards.

Advantages of jajmani system are –

• Provides sense of security, peace and satisfaction/contentment to both, employers and employees. No jajman goes without service nor any kamin goes without food.
• Gives economic security to employees. They do not have to worry about finding employment. They know that if they go away from their family occupation, they will face difficulty to earn enough livelihood.
• In crisis employer helps employees.
• Employers are mentally relieved, as they are assured of the services, they require.
• Jajmani arrangements are more in favour of “Have-nots service-providers-
  • Jobs of working class were assured. It is obligatory for an employer to employ the son of his employees.
  • Employers/service-takers do not have the right like modern wage-relations to discontinue/terminate the services of the families of serving occupational castes any time or after the job is done or secure the services of another.
  • If they were not satisfied with the quality of the service, or they notice slackness on the part of the service-providers, they can bring the matter to the attention of Council of their respective local area.
  • There is no compulsion that service-providers should work for specific family or families. Scope of their work depends on demand and supply.
  • Service-providers are assured of their economic security.
• System creates an atmosphere conducive to peaceful living and co-operation. Cut-throat-competition for work or employment is almost absent in jajmani arrangements.
• Close relationship between employers and employees. It is not purely economical, nor individual or temporary, but is permanent, emotional and internal. A spirit of fellow feeling and brotherhood develops under this system. Both are aware of each other’s limitations and plus points. Both try their best to adjust with each other.
• Jajmani arrangements tell people that Work is worship. All occupations are worth pursuing for the benefit of the whole society. No occupation is high or low.
• Do sincerely and consistently, the work society has assigned to different sections of society, and not to interfere in other’s work. The system avoids confusion, bitterness, rivalry or frustration on matter of work.

Disadvantages – The system has been criticized for being –

• Not giving much choice to individuals to decide about their occupation.
• Source of exploitation, discrimination and suppression. Exploitation of lower castes (such as Khati (Carpenter), Nai (Barber), Kumhars (Potters), Lobars (Blacksmiths), Dhobi (Washer man), Sweeper (Chuhra) etc) by families of upper castes (like of agriculturists, the zamindars) continues under the garb of paternal ties. They receive the benefit of services and products of lower castes 
• Its hereditary nature restricts the mobility of have-nots.
• Develops feeling of superiority and inferiority. Service class is considered low whereas class of service-takers, high. 
• Impediment to occupational and social mobility.
• Jajmani system is very much supported by caste-system. Critics say that this system suffers from all the evils of caste system.

Journey of Jajmani system from ancient times onwards

Jajmani system in ancient India – The term ‘Jajmani’ is derived from Vedic term, ‘Yajman’, which means, a person getting the services of a Brahmin to perform religious ceremonies (Yagyas). Later on, the term Yajman became Jajman. From religious sphere, it passed on to socio-economic arena.

Beginning of Jajmani arrangements in India can be traced from the times of ancient agricultural society, when pastoral tribal society transformed into a settled agricultural society, confining its activities and life within a small area. Agricultural society leisurely evolved its structures and systems over about 2000 years (roughly between 2000 BC to about 600 BC) and kept on coping with the changes slowly, time had brought in. Traditional Jajmani arrangements had started sometimes during ancient agricultural Indian society to manage daily necessities and working of the society. Possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started.

There has been a deep influence of Vedic principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma on Jajmani arrangements. Influence of Vedic principles on Jajmani system can be seen clearly in its systems –

• Influence of Principle of Varna on Jajmani system – Under the influence of Principle of Varna, unique traditional occupational Jajmani system –
• Provides Employment, dignity and honour for all –Professor Shah says, “Varna/Caste system has a long range and permanent plan embracing every class of society. If applied to every individual, regardless of age and other conditions, no one could be unemployed. Nor could have one worked inappropriate to one’s ability, training, environment, aptitude and attainment, nor could any work be inadequately remunerated.”
• Differentiates between various occupations –Principle of Varna differentiates various occupations. According to it, the whole world of activities is a result of complex intermixing of three basic qualities of human nature – goodness (Satwa), Passion (Rajas) and dullness (Tamas). `Goodness’ is associated with purity, peace and knowledge; `Passion’ with comfort and action; and `Tamas’ with ignorance, sloth, sleep and carelessness. These qualities determine tendencies, potentialities, limitations, traits and character of people and give them direction for action. It makes individuals different from each other in attitude, aptitude, physical and mental capacity, aspirations, like and dislikes, inclination and expectations. Principle of Varna differentiates various occupations on the basis of these factors. So does Jajmani Arrangements.
• Division of labour – Principle of Varna differentiates all functions, needed for the maintenance and growth of whole society, on the basis of natural instincts, skills, needs of the society and other innate characteristics. It does fourfold division of occupations and assigns to different Varnas (followed by caste system) –Brahmins (intellectuals), who have psychological characteristics, positive attitude and natural inclination to pursue knowledge, are assigned the work of pursuing knowledge, research and development activities, and set norms for general public. Kashtriyas (warriors/administrators) having action-oriented attitude and qualities courage, bravery and power are assigned the job of defence and maintenance of law and order in the society.Vashyas (business community) smart in tricks and nuances of trade, were given the charge of trade, commerce and business. Shudras (manual labours/supportive hands), who are unable to take independent decisions, are advised to work under the guidance of the above three.
• With passage of time, people found it more economical and convenient to follow their traditional occupations on hereditary basis. Jajmani arrangements has always given importance to natural endowments, intelligence along with attitude and aptitude. Work in the spheres of agriculture and army has always been open to all. T Colebrooke, an early Sanskrit Scholar says, “It may be received as a general maxim that occupation appointed for each tribe is entitled merely to a preference. Every profession, with few exceptions, was open to every description of persons and the discouragement arising from religious prejudices is not greater than what exists in Great Britain from the effects of Municipal and Corporate laws.” (Quoted from ‘Indian Express’, dated 18.9.90, p 8).
• High level of Specialization and wisdom – Jajmani arrangements organise different activities within each unit, effectively and manage human and social behaviour in tune with the objectives of the society. Working in hereditary occupation led the society to achieve a high level of specialization and wisdom. Its hereditary nature makes downward filtration of knowledge and wisdom possible.
• Jajmani system develops joint effort and cooperation of occupational caste to face common challenges of their occupation and to find out their solutions. It leads to accomplish more skill, specialization, success and happiness.
• By its very nature, it encourages development and preservation of local skills.
• Don Martindale said that earlier, ancient India possessed a reservoir of natural leaders. Brahmans in literary skills, Kashitryas in art of leadership and different service groups in particular skills.
• Transfer of knowledge and expertise done from one generation to the following generations serves as a spawning bed for social and technical skills. The manner, in which social, technical and occupational knowledge and skills are transferred and developed, is through practice and experience; not through formal classroom lectures, which often kills originality and verve of people.
• Natural training without investment – The system transmits knowledge, expertise, tricks of the trade, intelligence, abilities, experiences, values and skills within their families under training and guidance of their ‘elders’. Children, while growing up, learnt about hidden intricacies of profession and solutions of occupational problems/hazards, informally from their elders. Being constantly in contact with the family occupation, it is natural for younger generations to learn maximum about their traditional occupations, that too without much expenditure.
• Benefit of the knowledge and wisdom of learned intelligentsia, sages and Munies filters down to the ignorant and illiterate masses. On the basis of their scholarly researches and experiences, the sages have prescribed certain guidelines in the form of rituals for the benefit of common men and keeping order in the society. It is the sincere efforts of ancient Rishis and Munies that India has entered into modern world without any cultural break.
• The system as a whole increases confidence of the workers. Total environment of working, under normal circumstances, gives satisfaction to both Jajmaan and Kamins. It saved people from confusion or unhealthy competition.
• Ranking, not much Disparity – Earlier, there was not any hard and fast rule of ranking various occupational groups/castes in ancient India. Genius sages and ‘Munies’ (intelligentsia of ancient India) have conceived socio-economic values, its systems and arrangements in such a way that there had been hardly any room for any Varna/caste to consider itself, as being placed in greater or lesser disadvantageous position with reference to another.
  • Character, conduct and way of living along with relevance, usefulness and contribution of their occupations to society were the factors to determine social, economic or political status in society visa vis others.
  • Observation of self-discipline (relative purity), moral standard, knowledge and spiritual standards were the parameters to earn the respect of the society. Higher a group, greater were the self-restrictions on its behaviour through rituals. Brahmins (intellectuals), occupying the highest place in the society, were put under maximum restrictions and were denied accumulation of wealth. They were directed to lead a simple life, devoted to the spiritual and intellectual pursuits and were denied accumulation of wealth.
  • Considerations of hygiene and cleanliness on the basis of climatic conditions of the region were given importance. Jajmani arrangements prohibited the well settled families to exercise coercion against its working class. Categorization of people as forwards or backwards or as weaker sections and powerful lobbies was almost non-existent at that time.
• Ranking of different occupational groups (Varna followed by castes) does not put them within a framework of hierarchical layers of social order, each fitting neatly below the other, but more or less as a series of vertical parallels.
• Interdependence – The intrinsic features of Varna system – interdependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life – is visible in Jajmani arrangements as well. It makes each and every local area self-sufficient to fulfil the basic needs of all its people and freedom in their personal matters to each occupational group.
• Develops Human relationship between employers and employees – Jajmani Arrangements still caters needs of both employers and employees in rural India and keeps both Jajman and Kamin. But, in modern big cities and Metros, individuals live in their own world, confined within watertight compartments, and hardly have any interaction with others persons living in the same area. Relationship between Jajman and Kamin are not purely economic. It is more like father and son relationship. The spirit of paternalism guided Jajmans, who give food grain or money to their kamins from time to time.
• Influence of Principles of Dharma – Like the Principle of Dharma, in Jajmani system, all occupations are supposed to be worth pursuing. It inspired people to do their jobs well, as all worldly honour and spiritual happiness were vested there.
  • Like Principle of Dharma, Jajmani system makes clear-cut division of rights and duties of both Jajmaans and Kamins as well as of each occupational social group separately. It gives due consideration to the requirements of different occupations and develops understanding amongst people for their liberties, limits and responsibilities.
  • Clear-cut division of rights and duties/responsibility each occupational group boosts morale of people and promotes social equilibrium and solidarity. Day to day relations of all social groups inside the local society remain harmonious.
  • It manages smoothly day-to-day necessities and relation with one-another. All castes including untouchables are assigned important social duties. Harijan women helped all castes at time of child-birth, Harijan males beat drums in front of a procession on auspicious occasions/ceremonies. Village barber spread news, arranges marriages and served food during celebrations. Occasionally non-Brahmins or Harijans serve as priests of temples of goddesses like Sita or Kali, where all castes can make offerings.
  • Arrangements under jajmani system are made on the principle of ‘Give and take’. Accepting “Freebees” is considered derogatory. Both Jajmans (patrons) and Kamins (workers), belonging to different castes, know that they, too, are serving the community in one way or the other way and are contributing something worthwhile to the society.
  • Jajmani system saved common-men from confusion or unhealthy competition. It avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society.
• Influence of the Principle of Karma – Influence of Principle of ‘Karma’ can be seen in the work culture of jajmani system in following areas –
• Teaches that “Work is worship”. Any work done in its true spirit could never be derogatory or a waste.  A work was not so much valued for its external reward, as for the intrinsic satisfaction towards realization of Swadharma.
• Inspires people to do their jobs well, as all worldly honour and spiritual happiness were vested there. 
• Assures people that proper performance of one’s work, whether high or humble, whether of a priest, warrior, Shudra or yogi are equally important and contributes in giving the whole society a quality of life. Therefore every occupation is right, respectable and worth pursuing.
• Disassociation between Wealth and knowledge/skills – Jajmani system separates wealth from status, power from authority, pursuit and achievement in knowledge/skills from temptations of worldly comforts and gives more value to knowledge, purity, discipline and moral standards of people. Now, in modern societies social status of a person or organization is linked with money and material success or control of political power/authority.
• Guides people not to interfere unnecessarily in other groups’ occupations/work.
• Not to blame others – ‘Adharma” (immoral behavior), “Alasya” (laziness) and Agyan (ignorance) were held responsible for unemployment and all evils like exploitation, poverty and helplessness of people.
• Every social group was expected to lead a self-restraint and self-disciplined life in all respect, be it in the matter of daily routine, occupation or inter-group relationship. Whereas, Western cultures has grown around the idea of `rights” forming the natural foundation of human relationship, traditional system of occupation evolves around the concept of “duty, tolerance and sacrifice”. Emphasis on duty usually makes a person or a group humble and tolerant. Principle of Karma regarded sacrifice more important than success, and renunciation as the crowning achievement. Such a Work-culture fills the community with a sense of duty and train them in obedience. It has helped Indians to adjust themselves, without much difficulty, to most drastic changes in the past.
• Ancient traditional jajmani arrangements had led ancient India to more production, economic efficiency and expertise in almost all the areas and activities like spinning, weaving, pottery making, bead making, seal making, terra-cotta, handicrafts, brick-laying, metal work etc. Many travellers visiting India, from alien lands at different points of time, confirmed that India possessed huge wealth, knowledge, and quality of life. It was a cheerful land. Each person found a niche in the social system. Its people reached a high level of intelligence having specialization in different areas. An average Indian, according to Dr. Albert Swheitzen, “Did not find life a vale of tears, from which to escape at all costs, rather he was willing to accept the world, as he finds it and, extract, what happiness he could, from it”. Recently U.S. Ambassador John Kenneth Galbraith remarked, “While he had seen poverty in many countries of the world, he found an unusual attribute among the poor of India. There is richness in their poverty. They did not count wealth in money alone”.
• It has stopped people from taking law in their own hands. While other nations passed through many bloody revolutions, India kept on adapting itself to changing times. In ancient Greece, Rome or other European countries, people were made to work under the threat of a whip. The system worked so well that when the world was passing through the Dark Age, India was full of light. The first few centuries are recognized as the golden period of Indian history. During this period, arts, commerce, crafts, philosophy and knowledge flourished magnificently.
• Jajmani system during medieval period – During medieval period, Pattern of employment and work-culture continued as it was during ancient times. There was no dearth of employment for aspiring workers in India.  A substantial labour market existed.  In addition to their hereditary occupation, agriculture and army were open to all sections of society irrespective of caste or community. Only requirement was mainly to develop capacities, capabilities, basic qualifications to do that job. Such as, for administrative work, bravery and management skill was necessary. Jajmani system worked well throughout pre-colonial era.
• With the passage of time, Jajmani system has started losing its creditability. Industrialization, modernization and globalization has affected immensely, the pattern of employment and its work culture. It brought many economic, social and political changes. There was a shift from agrarian economy to manufacturing economy. Products were no longer made solely by hand, but with the help of machines. This led to increased production, more goods and migration from rural areas to urban areas. Urbanization led to the growth of cities.
• Challenges to jajmani system have come with the beginning of Industrialization, Modernization, and Globalization processes. Fast changes have been happening in the pattern of employment, work-culture and value system since second half of 20^th and beginning of 21^st centuries. Many new kinds of occupations/jobs have been added continuously to the traditional jobs of pre-industrial-society of earlier days. There have been four major revolutions in the sphere of job-market, which has changed the employment pattern and mechanised its work-culture –
• The First revolution during late seventies period used water and steam power to mechanized agriculture by industry.
• Second phase of mechanization used electricity, gas, and oil to create mass production at the end of 19^th century.
• Third revolution (second half of the 20^th century) gave rise to digital technology. It gave rise to electronics, telecommunication and computers.
• Now 21^st century is an era of Artificial Intelligence. (For reference see Latasinha’s Weblog, system of employment in ancient and modern India).
• Jajmani system during Modern times – World entered from medieval era to modernity roughly around 16^th century to late 18^th century. Modern times can be divided into –
• Early modern period
• Late modern period
• Contemporary Modern Period  
• Early Modern Period – (between 1600 to 1800) – During this period, there had been a wide-ranging political, economic and intellectual changes in India. Position of India and England during early modern times, sayup till 16^th century, India had become the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. Alex Von Tunzelmann describes India as, “A vast, mighty and magnificent Empire, brilliantly organized and culturally unified. It dominated a massive swath of the earth. An average Indian peasant enjoyed a relatively higher income, and lower taxation than his descendants ever would again. Under Mughal rule, its people, Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists were allowed freedom of conscience and custom.”
• At that point of time, “England was underdeveloped, semi-feudal realm, riven legions factionalism, and barely able to feed its illiterate, diseased, and stinking masses areas and worked on land, going hungry during frequent food shortages. They were prevented from moving into industry by the protectionist rackets of guild entry fee. Begging was common. Nation’s ten thousand vagabonds were the terror of the land. Quality of life was not good. About two-third population lived at subsistence levels.” (Indian Summer, The secret history of the end of Empire, pp 11-12)
• After industrialization, the position of India and Britain had reversed. The process of Industrialization, had benefitted England (where it began) the most. England increased its economic, military and political power by colonizing other nations. By mid-18^th century, Britain was the world’s leading commercial nation and India an under-developed country colonised by British Empire.
• Late modern period (1800 up to World War II) – During this period, World was dominated by Imperial and Colonial powers.  It can be said that process of Modernization started in India during mid-18^th century with the arrival of Britishers. British colonized India and established its rule firmly over the entire country in 1857. Processes of modernization, industrialization and colonization brought prosperity and poverty simultaneously. Karl Marx remarked that British, “had a double mission in India, one destructive, the other regenerating; the annihilation of the old Asiatic Society and laying the material foundation of Western Society in Asia.”^I (Dutt RP, India Today, p476)
• Factors that changed socio-economic arrangements in India – Changes which changed the socio-economic Jajmani arrangements, value system, its work-culture and mutual relationship between employer and employees are –
• Introduction of Grammer school education system (1834) – Introduction of modern education in 1835. Introduction of Wood’s dispatch of 1854, known as Magna Carta, declared English as an official language. It was made compulsory for Government employment. It served a double purpose for the British rulers. They got the credit for the amelioration of the Indian society. But at the same time, through it, they devised a unique method of distribution of power, kept balance of power and prolonged their rule in India by keeping the natives busy in their in-fights.
• At that time all, humanitarians, intellectuals, leaders and leaders and social reformers not only welcomed rationality and other good features of Modern English education. They hoped that modern education would –
• Enlighten Indians by giving them the key to open the treasures of scientific discoveries and democratic, liberal and humanitarian thoughts of the modern ‘West’ through Western literature and philosophy.
• Make people aware of the real issues hampering the progress of Indian society, remedy the social, political and economic ills of the country and improve the life of common men by enabling them to conquer ignorance, hunger, poverty and disease.
• Spread of the Principles of Democracy across the nation to bring to an end imperialism and tyranny of British rule.
• Modern education system has both of constructive and destructive effects on its systems. On one hand, it offered to Indian intelligentsia the key to the treasures of scientific and democratic thoughts of Modern ‘West’, on the other hand, it had disassociated Indian people from their culture, classical roots, knowledge and traditional way of living. Along with it, faded Indian values, philosophies and traditions.
• As recorded, pre-colonial education in India was fairly universal. Temples and mosques of each village and children of all communities attended these schools. (According to Historian Dharampal’s work based on British documents from early 1800s) Gurukuls/temple-based charity education declined and government-funded missionary schools took over the charge of educating people. [Jayant Pandurang Nayaka; Syed Nurullah, 1974, A students’ history of education in India (1800-1973)] Modern education system had dis-associated Indian people from their traditional way of learning, employment pattern, work-culture, classical roots and knowledge. With it, faded Indian values, philosophies and traditions.
• Relentless effort of missionaries and reformers could educate a very small number of people from amongst them. It rose from estimated 3.2% to 16.1% in 1941. (Census 2011: Literacy rate and sex ratio in India since 1901 to 2011). Reason for low literacy rate during colonial rule was that Modern education was very costly, therefore unaffordable by the masses. The medium of instruction was also a foreign language – English. Besides masses did not see any immediate use of education at that time. It was more important for poor people to work and arrange two square meals day.
• Industrialization – Processes of Industrialization and Modernity brought prosperity and poverty simultaneously.
• Industrial Revolution has made drastic changes in the social life of people. There has been shifts in population, ecology, technology, culture and relationships. The behaviour, life style, values, and attitudes as well as in the power equations and inter-relationship of various individuals, groups and organizations of the agrarian societies had changes. Along with it, changed the pattern of family life, work-atmosphere, and political environment and business culture of the nation.
• Initially technologies were developed for lessening the strain on human muscles and designed for illiterate labour force. More a person withdrew from physical labor, more honored; civilized and qualified he/she was considered by modern society. The trend of easy and quick money started.
• Machines were heavy, rigid and capital intensive. Work was unskilled, standardized and broken into simplest possible operations. All the workers were equally good, easily interchangeable like parts of a machine. Numerous unemployed people were always available. The workers were kept ignorant and powerless by keeping information restricted. These workers were chained to industrial discipline. Their life in the factory was tightly regimented.
• Aversion towards traditional occupation was due to-
• Low wages.
  • Attraction for easy money,
  • More a person withdrew from physical labour, more honoured, civilized and qualified, he/she was regarded by modern world.
  • Ignorance and unawareness about opportunities available.
• Positive effects of Industrialization – Positive effects of industrialization included –
• Large scale production of goods.
• Urbanization or expansion of the cities.
• Machines have helped people do their work more quickly. It has saved their time and labour.
• Demand for raw material increased.
• Productivity has been optimized,
• Improved access of food and other items to the customers.
• Considerable rise in the standard of living of the people.
• Surplus products results in cheaper prices.
• Significant population growth.
• Industrialization developed mass-culture – Later on Industrialization has developed culture of mass capital, mass production, mass-consumption, mass media and mass democracy.
• Adverse effects – Adverse effects of the Process of Industrialization under the guidance of colonial rulers had been –
• There was a growing aversion towards many traditional occupations done manually. It affected Indian handicrafts, cottage industry, fine arts and local skills, and indigenous genius adversely. It led to the decay of village Handicrafts industry as competition was directly with the cheap machine goods.
  1. The colonial rule destroyed textile and handicrafts industries through their policies.
  1. Flooded the market with machine made goods cheaper than hand-made products.
  1. Indian farmers were forced to produce cotton plantation so that it can fuel English factories. It primarily remained producing country which ultimately retarded the industrial development of the country in its early period.
  1. Britain policy of ‘divide and rule’ to perpetuate its rule, led to inter-caste/inter communal rivalries, inter group conflicts, which has done irreparable damage to India.
  1. Money the prime motivator of workforce – It has shifted the attention of the people to generate more wealth. People were desperately dependent on money for their survival. Money became the prime motivator of workforce, the main tool of social control and political power. (Toffler, Power shift)
• Process of Mechanization – Rapid expansion of the means of transport and communication led jajmani system in a decline. It has made easy for individuals to seek job or other occupation of their liking outside their village. Labour force was no longer interested int Jajmani arrangements.
• Traditional jobs hijacked by educated entrepreneurs – In comparison to new modern occupation, traditional occupations appeared to people derogatory, less paying, more hazardous and time-consuming. Many traditional occupations became obsolete. Many castes of Artisans, Craftsmen, and Agriculture abandoned their traditional work. They either migrated to cities as industrial labour or became agriculture labour. Outcome was casualty of workers first, then their work-style commitment, motivation and work-culture.  India was reduced to a position of producer of raw material and market of products made in UK.   
• Very few could join modern occupations in the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity. Majority of them could stick to their traditional occupations considering menial work derogatory. They had no option, but to join the band agricultural labour, industrial workers, marginal labour or increase the number of   unemployed or under employed. Industrial revolution had increased disparity between Haves and Have-nots. 
• Some young entrepreneurs, having education, money and awareness, did market survey and hijacked many discarded traditional occupations. They modernized such disdained and contemptuous jobs like mechanization of fishing or leather industry and made them profit oriented. Even less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been hijacked by educated middle class. They re-christened them as saloon, laundry etc and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. _.
• Biased Census operation – Earlier, the Hindu Society was classified into four Varnas embracing numerous castes and sub-castes within its fold on the basis of their occupations. First volume of Risley’s census Man in 1901 (the Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute) drew the attention of all to the diversity of Indian society and multiplicity of castes and sub-castes in India. It noted, “The entire framework of native life in India is made up of groups of castes and tribes, and status and conduct of individuals are, largely, determined by the rules of the group, to which he belonged.”
• Risley’s census had changed the older socio-economic pattern in a fundamental way, giving rigidity to social stratification and hierarchical ranking. It recorded and put in order numerous occupational castes in hierarchical order. Through legal process, it gave them a new separate and distinct identity as – Brahmins, Non-Brahmins, Muslims, Anglo-Indians, untouchables, non-Hindu Communities and backward castes”.             
• Importance to “Power in numbers” through electoral politics – Start of Electoral politics, along with Census operation during the beginning of 20^th century, has given rise to “Power in numbers”. From now onwards, very diplomatically Indian population has been divided into different uncompromising groups “We” and “They”, “Haves and “Have-nots”, “Majority” and “Minority”, Non-Brahmins and Brahmins and caste Hindus.  The introduction of electoral politics gave rise to “Power in numbers”. Later on, in Independent India, it gave political leverage to the non-Brahmin sections of society on account of their numerical strength.
• _.  
• All the developments happened during late 19^th and beginning of 20^th centuries (like faster means of transport, rapid rise in the lower caste population, coupled with division of lands/property held by well settled families) destroyed the local character of many institutions/systems. Small inter-dependent local castes, confined within a small area earlier, grew in size, embracing a much wider area than before. It drastically changed culture of job-market and pattern of employment.
• Modern education system has given freedom to individuals to choose any field of work/occupation/job for themselves. It has given relief to those, who were not allowed to pursue work of their choice earlier. But at the same time, it has created confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should select. They do not care much for their attitude or aptitude, but give more importance to money or power to control the destiny of others.
• It gave importance and popularity to ‘White collared jobs’ in organized sector. Declaration of English as Official language pushed the masses away from new employment opportunities. Majority of people could neither enter into modern sector, nor could stick to their traditional occupations. Very few of them could join modern occupations. In the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity, most of them had no option, but either to join band of agricultural laborers, industrial workers and marginal labour for their survival or increase number of unemployed or under employed. 
• Emergence of white-collared jobs based on formal education tended to make many traditional occupations obsolete, as they were considered less paying, more hazardous or time consuming. It scattered the efforts, sense of direction and manufacturing skills of millions of artisans, craftsman, weavers etc. There had been casualty of workers first, afterwards their work style, commitment, motivation and culture. They lost their creativity, sense of achievement and pride. Work culture has changed tremendously since then.
• Very few of them could join modern occupations. Majority of people could neither enter into modern sector, nor could stick to their traditional occupations considering the menial work derogatory. In the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity, most of them had no option, but either to join band of agricultural labors, industrial workers and marginal labor for their survival or increase number of unemployed or under employed.
• Adverse effects of modern education have been –
• Poverty and disparity have been increased between haves and have-nots. More a person withdraws from manual more respectable he is considered in modern society.
• Modern education system has pushed millions backward in a very subtle manner. Trend to get hold on modern occupations, has led to inter-caste rivalries, social tensions and group conflicts.
• From community based, employment system became individual based.  Earlier employment was through caste affiliations. Now sanctity of caste rules and caste consciousness loosened, as far as employment and work-culture is concerned. Instead of depending on caste for a job, modern education system gave freedom to individuals to select occupation of their own choice.
• Desire to get safe and secure jobs in government has created a large number of new White-collared desk-jobs (of administrators, doctors, engineers, architects, builders, lawyers etc.) and Blue collared jobs in factories etc.
• Access to these jobs depends on formal education, /degrees/diplomas or certificates. Therefore, it could benefit educated “Haves” only.
• Modern system of employment has rendered millions of illiterates or semi-literates jobless, unemployed or underemployed. Modern education forcefully implanted in the minds of educated Indians, venom against caste system and traditional systems and practices linked with it. It blamed traditional arrangements of occupations responsible for peoples’ poverty, misery, deprivation and for creating an iniquitous society, exploitative and oppressive by nature.
• Changes with modernity – Finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable traditional jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected after industrialization and modernization. system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier.
• However, development of complicated systems with modernity, emerged more new kinds of problems in the job-market.
• Traditional way of employment has saved youth from confusion or frustration or unhealthy competition or rivalry on matter of occupation/work. It has avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society. aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector.
• There is confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should choose. Selecting those jobs, which are beyond their reach, or for which neither they have capacity, aptitude or attitude, has pushed millions of young-men towards unemployment or underemployment.
• Earlier, under normal circumstances, socio-economic and political activities and its work culture were in tune with the needs and objectives of the society.
• Today, there is a cut throat competition for getting admissions in institutions of higher education and training. Majority of youth are more interests in pay-package. They do not bother much about aptitude and attitude or about channelizing their further education and training accordingly.
• In traditional jajmani arrangements, occupational- training and guidance were given by elders which had led ancient and medieval India to excellence. Today, it is very difficult to get admission and attain necessary qualifications for the profession of their choice choice due to acute shortage of the formal institutions to one of the reasons being population explosion. They have no option, but to take admissions wherever and in which discipline they get. It limits their opportunities to do what they want to do and attain necessary knowledge, qualification and mindset needed prior to entering into a profession.
• Aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector. Now modern youth spend their precious, creative and energetic time and efforts in constant search and pursuit of their dream jobs. It has given rise to stiff competition for each and every post in modern organized sector. By proper career planning and policies, this valuable time could have utilized for constructive purposes.
• Less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been overtaken by educated middle class. and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. Some young educated entrepreneurs have done market survey and have hijacked many of the discarded traditional occupations. They have modernized and re-christened such disdained and contemptuous jobs as saloon, laundry etc.  They have done mechanization of some jobs like fishing or leather industry and have made them profit oriented.
• Emergence of organized and unorganized sectors of modern job-market has eroded traditional pattern of employment. Organized sector has become the backbone of modern economy. Organised sector facilitates adequate means of livelihood and specified position in social, economic and political world. In contrast, majority of people working in unorganized sector find themselves helpless and vulnerable, as their awareness and knowledge about the system is very limited.   Many times, they do not get even due wages for their labour.
• It has stratified Indian society into following water-tight compartments, class-wise: –
  • Lower class – People, for whom work was essential for survival.
  • Middle class – People, who were educated and loved to work for self-advancement and prosperity, salaried people, mostly employed in organized and
• Upper class – Which lives on other’s labour, benefiting from their position in society.
• Haves and Have-nots – Modern Indian society is now divided into two water-tight compartments. An unbridgeable gulf has been created between Haves and Have-nots. Traditional work-culture was more concerned for have-nots, not by giving them doles but advising them to render their service sincerely and honestly for the benefit of the whole society. Modern occupational system serves more the needs of rich and influential people. There is a cut-throat competition for white-collared jobs. People do not hesitate in making compromises to earn easy and quick money. They have formed their own exclusive society. Creation of an inclusive society seems to be a distant dream, though different types of institutions/NGOS have come up to improve their relationship.
• Haves – On one hand are well-settled rich persons, who come under the category of “Haves”. Process of Industrialization and modernization has given rise to many new occupations. It has given individuals, immense choice to choose their occupation. Accessibility to white-collared jobs is through education, knowledge of English language and number of degrees and certificates. More a person withdrew from physical labour, the more civilized, honoured and qualified he was regarded by the modern society and joins the band of “Haves”. Most of them are industrialists, self-employed professionals, employees/managers in government, private and public sector, contractors, cultivators, traders and businessmen, entrepreneurs etc. They are becoming richer and richer every-day. Haves (India’s top 1%) own more than 40.5% of its total wealth earn a lot, without much labour. (New report of Oxfam)
• Have-nots – On the other hand, are poor (Have-nots), who are unable to afford even basic necessities to survive. Though percentwise, number of poor fell from 36.6% in 2025/2016 to 21.2% in 2019/2021, to about 219%. (m.economictimes.com>News>India). But in absolute number, the number of unemployed, landless labours, illiterates, poor peasants, marginal workers in household industry, domestic servants, unemployed, destitute and poor peasantry has increased enormously due to population explosion.   Millions toil day and night and still find themselves unable to arrange two square meals a day or are unable to secure minimum subsistence requirements for life, health and general awareness, which results usually due to lack of access to resources, right information and approach to overcome it.
• Unhealthy competition – There is neck to neck competition for a few places in educational institutions of repute or in employment, especially in organized sector. Rivalry and bitterness for pelf, power or position is continuously increasing. Total aversion of youth from their traditional occupations and stiff competition elsewhere for employment pushed millions to poverty. It has rendered millions of people unemployed or underemployed, who are now wasting all their efforts and most energetic and creative time of their lives, while hunting for a job.
• Large population of Illiterates and unskilled work-force – ‘Education for all’ and ‘employment for all’ is still a dream. Lack of proper education and training systems combined with illiteracy and lack of skills amongst a large number of people has turned the visions of national development into empty dreams. Only 64.84 people are literate according to 2001 census, (Males – 75.26% and Females – 53.67%). In absolute number, the figure is alarming.  No nation can afford to have a large number of its population to remain illiterate, ignorant and unskilled. Not only the number of illiterates and unskilled is a matter of concern, but also quality and insufficient resources of education and training are the matter of great concern.  Population explosion has put a heavy pressure on available infrastructure of education and training.
• Mishandling of policies at implementation level – Sufferings of have-nots are multiplying because of growing underhandedness, insufficient and ineffective monitoring of projects undertaken for their welfare, corruption, undue pressures of influential groups and unholy alliances.  The poor, who possess only labour and skill, do not get due wages for their labour, because the wage-determination policy of the government does not recognize the value of their knowledge/skill. Some of them are even unable to manage two square meals a day.
• Problem of unemployment in modern India – Aversion of modern youth from their traditional occupations has today rendered millions of them unemployed or underemployed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employments is increasing continuously along with population explosion.  Employment rate in India in April 2023 has increased up to 8.11%, reason being a rise in labour participation rate. Labour participation rate increased from 39.77% in March to 41.98% in April 2023 (Natasha Sommaya. K, Economic Outlook, 01 May 2023). Despite of all the efforts done so far, a large number of people remain under-employed or unemployed. India’s unemployment rate for persons aged 15 and above is about 8.11% in April 2023.
• Unemployment or under-employment is continuously increasing in absolute numbers. Major reasons behind increasing unemployment are –
• Rapid growth of population,
• Aversion of modern youth towards traditional occupations.
• Dominance of agriculture, Agriculture is a seasonal occupation.
• Inadequate economic growth
• Fall of Cottage and small industries,
• Immobility of labour,
• Defects in education system.
• For solving the problem of unemployment, it is necessary to impart new knowledge, new skills and to inculcate new attitudes in the youth of the nation through a well-planned and systematic arrangement of both ‘education’ and ‘training’. A well-planned education and training system would enable youth to get employed gainfully, to contribute to and guide the social changes and development into desired direction. It would help the nation to achieve its goals within time and cost-parameters.
• Corrupt practices – Recent political turmoil has adversely affected the whole atmosphere. Centralization of power has corrupted the whole system. A few Individuals and groups, with political, money or muscle power control the destiny of millions and have say in almost every walk of national life. They are working day and night to deny justice to common men and upright citizens. Favouritism, in-discipline, violence, corruption, lure for easy money, nepotism and chase of materialism based on ruthless competition have weakened the social fabric beyond repair. The erosion of basic moral and human values has turned the life of men, “nasty, brutish and short”.
• Some undesirable changes happened in recent past has changed the character, role and inter-relationship of some main constituents of the national elites – political, executive, legislators, businessmen, organised workers, surplus farmers, bureaucrats and biased media persons.  Sectoral and regional imbalances are the sources of great social and psychological tensions. Level of productivity has remained low, leaving little surplus for saving and capital formation. Absence of enough capital, able and honest leadership, lack of efficient and clean administration, enough skilled personnel, ineffective implementation of development policies are the reasons of persistent economic backwardness.
• All powerful Government making common man a pigmy – Being a Government of Welfare and Development, instead of being a facilitator, it has assumed absolute power by taken on itself responsibilityof generating/creating/providing employment to all. Instead of teaching the youth “how to fish”, government’ prefers to “give fish” (jobs) to them. It has centralized control systems and made government ‘Messiah’ and downsized sovereign citizens in position of helpless ‘Pigmies’. People find it difficult to move even a step further without the blessings or support of authorities. Modern system has given freedom to modern youth freedom to decide about their future work without making them mature enough understand.
• Populist policies to catch vote-banks – In order to create vote banks discriminatory populist policies are being pursued in the name of ‘equality’ or ‘social justice’. More emphasis is being given in pursuing abstract and emotional issues rather than solving the real problems of people. Attempts for social changes make a virtue of narrow loyalties of caste and religion, generating sub-cultures like favoritism, lure for easy money, nepotism and, in-discipline in the society. Caste and communal conflicts are increasing. There are sectarian and regional imbalances generating social and psychological tensions.
• Technological advancement – Scientific and technological developments has endowed human with tremendous power both to preserve and destroy. At slightest provocation, people do not hesitate to unleash destructive powers accessible to them. That is one of the reasons for increase in the incidents of violence and crimes.
• Changes with modernity – Finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable traditional jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected after industrialization and modernization. system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier.
• However, development of complicated systems with modernity, emerged more new kinds of problems in the job-market.
• Traditional way of employment has saved youth from confusion or frustration or unhealthy competition or rivalry on matter of occupation/work. It has avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society. aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector.
• There is confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should choose. Selecting those jobs, which are beyond their reach, or for which neither they have capacity, aptitude or attitude, has pushed millions of young-men towards unemployment or underemployment.
• Earlier, under normal circumstances, socio-economic and political activities and its work culture were in tune with the needs and objectives of the society.
• Today, there is a cut throat competition for getting admissions in institutions of higher education and training. Majority of youth are more interests in pay-package. They do not bother much about aptitude and attitude or about channelizing their further education and training accordingly.
• In traditional jajmani arrangements, occupational- training and guidance were given by elders which had led ancient and medieval India to excellence. Today, it is very difficult to get admission and attain necessary qualifications for the profession of their choice choice due to acute shortage of the formal institutions to one of the reasons being population explosion. They have no option, but to take admissions wherever and in which discipline they get. It limits their opportunities to do what they want to do and attain necessary knowledge, qualification and mindset needed prior to entering into a profession.
• Aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector. Now modern youth spend their precious, creative and energetic time and efforts in constant search and pursuit of their dream jobs. It has given rise to stiff competition for each and every post in modern organized sector. By proper career planning and policies, this valuable time could have utilized for constructive purposes.
• Less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been overtaken by educated middle class. and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. Some young educated entrepreneurs have done market survey and have hijacked many of the discarded traditional occupations. They have modernized and re-christened such disdained and contemptuous jobs as saloon, laundry etc.  They have done mechanization of some jobs like fishing or leather industry and have made them profit oriented.
• Emergence of organized and unorganized sectors of modern job-market has eroded traditional pattern of employment. Organized sector has become the backbone of modern economy. Organised sector facilitates adequate means of livelihood and specified position in social, economic and political world. In contrast, majority of people working in unorganized sector find themselves helpless and vulnerable, as their awareness and knowledge about the system is very limited.   Many times, they do not get even due wages for their labour.
• It has stratified Indian society into following water-tight compartments, class-wise: –
  • Lower class – People, for whom work was essential for survival.
  • Middle class – People, who were educated and loved to work for self-advancement and prosperity, salaried people, mostly employed in organized and
• Upper class – Which lives on other’s labour, benefiting from their position in society.
• Haves and Have-nots – Modern Indian society is now divided into two water-tight compartments. An unbridgeable gulf has been created between Haves and Have-nots. Traditional work-culture was more concerned for have-nots, not by giving them doles but advising them to render their service sincerely and honestly for the benefit of the whole society. Modern occupational system serves more the needs of rich and influential people. There is a cut-throat competition for white-collared jobs. People do not hesitate in making compromises to earn easy and quick money. They have formed their own exclusive society. Creation of an inclusive society seems to be a distant dream, though different types of institutions/NGOS have come up to improve their relationship.
• Haves – On one hand are well-settled rich persons, who come under the category of “Haves”. Process of Industrialization and modernization has given rise to many new occupations. It has given individuals, immense choice to choose their occupation. Accessibility to white-collared jobs is through education, knowledge of English language and number of degrees and certificates. More a person withdrew from physical labour, the more civilized, honoured and qualified he was regarded by the modern society and joins the band of “Haves”. Most of them are industrialists, self-employed professionals, employees/managers in government, private and public sector, contractors, cultivators, traders and businessmen, entrepreneurs etc. They are becoming richer and richer every-day. Haves (India’s top 1%) own more than 40.5% of its total wealth earn a lot, without much labour. (New report of Oxfam)
• Have-nots – On the other hand, are poor (Have-nots), who are unable to afford even basic necessities to survive. Though percentwise, number of poor fell from 36.6% in 2025/2016 to 21.2% in 2019/2021, to about 219%. (m.economictimes.com>News>India). But in absolute number, the number of unemployed, landless labours, illiterates, poor peasants, marginal workers in household industry, domestic servants, unemployed, destitute and poor peasantry has increased enormously due to population explosion.   Millions toil day and night and still find themselves unable to arrange two square meals a day or are unable to secure minimum subsistence requirements for life, health and general awareness, which results usually due to lack of access to resources, right information and approach to overcome it.
• Unhealthy competition – There is neck to neck competition for a few places in educational institutions of repute or in employment, especially in organized sector. Rivalry and bitterness for pelf, power or position is continuously increasing. Total aversion of youth from their traditional occupations and stiff competition elsewhere for employment pushed millions to poverty. It has rendered millions of people unemployed or underemployed, who are now wasting all their efforts and most energetic and creative time of their lives, while hunting for a job.
• Large population of Illiterates and unskilled work-force – ‘Education for all’ and ‘employment for all’ is still a dream. Lack of proper education and training systems combined with illiteracy and lack of skills amongst a large number of people has turned the visions of national development into empty dreams. Only 64.84 people are literate according to 2001 census, (Males – 75.26% and Females – 53.67%). In absolute number, the figure is alarming.  No nation can afford to have a large number of its population to remain illiterate, ignorant and unskilled. Not only the number of illiterates and unskilled is a matter of concern, but also quality and insufficient resources of education and training are the matter of great concern.  Population explosion has put a heavy pressure on available infrastructure of education and training.
• Mishandling of policies at implementation level – Sufferings of have-nots are multiplying because of growing underhandedness, insufficient and ineffective monitoring of projects undertaken for their welfare, corruption, undue pressures of influential groups and unholy alliances.  The poor, who possess only labour and skill, do not get due wages for their labour, because the wage-determination policy of the government does not recognize the value of their knowledge/skill. Some of them are even unable to manage two square meals a day.
• Problem of unemployment in modern India – Aversion of modern youth from their traditional occupations has today rendered millions of them unemployed or underemployed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employments is increasing continuously along with population explosion.  Employment rate in India in April 2023 has increased up to 8.11%, reason being a rise in labour participation rate. Labour participation rate increased from 39.77% in March to 41.98% in April 2023 (Natasha Sommaya. K, Economic Outlook, 01 May 2023). Despite of all the efforts done so far, a large number of people remain under-employed or unemployed. India’s unemployment rate for persons aged 15 and above is about 8.11% in April 2023.
• Unemployment or under-employment is continuously increasing in absolute numbers. Major reasons behind increasing unemployment are –
• Rapid growth of population,
• Aversion of modern youth towards traditional occupations.
• Dominance of agriculture, Agriculture is a seasonal occupation.
• Inadequate economic growth
• Fall of Cottage and small industries,
• Immobility of labour,
• Defects in education system.
• For solving the problem of unemployment, it is necessary to impart new knowledge, new skills and to inculcate new attitudes in the youth of the nation through a well-planned and systematic arrangement of both ‘education’ and ‘training’. A well-planned education and training system would enable youth to get employed gainfully, to contribute to and guide the social changes and development into desired direction. It would help the nation to achieve its goals within time and cost-parameters.
• Corrupt practices – Recent political turmoil has adversely affected the whole atmosphere. Centralization of power has corrupted the whole system. A few Individuals and groups, with political, money or muscle power control the destiny of millions and have say in almost every walk of national life. They are working day and night to deny justice to common men and upright citizens. Favouritism, in-discipline, violence, corruption, lure for easy money, nepotism and chase of materialism based on ruthless competition have weakened the social fabric beyond repair. The erosion of basic moral and human values has turned the life of men, “nasty, brutish and short”.
• Some undesirable changes happened in recent past has changed the character, role and inter-relationship of some main constituents of the national elites – political, executive, legislators, businessmen, organised workers, surplus farmers, bureaucrats and biased media persons.  Sectoral and regional imbalances are the sources of great social and psychological tensions. Level of productivity has remained low, leaving little surplus for saving and capital formation. Absence of enough capital, able and honest leadership, lack of efficient and clean administration, enough skilled personnel, ineffective implementation of development policies are the reasons of persistent economic backwardness.
• All powerful Government making common man a pigmy – Being a Government of Welfare and Development, instead of being a facilitator, it has assumed absolute power by taken on itself responsibilityof generating/creating/providing employment to all. Instead of teaching the youth “how to fish”, government’ prefers to “give fish” (jobs) to them. It has centralized control systems and made government ‘Messiah’ and downsized sovereign citizens in position of helpless ‘Pigmies’. People find it difficult to move even a step further without the blessings or support of authorities. Modern system has given freedom to modern youth freedom to decide about their future work without making them mature enough understand.
• Populist policies to catch vote-banks – In order to create vote banks discriminatory populist policies are being pursued in the name of ‘equality’ or ‘social justice’. More emphasis is being given in pursuing abstract and emotional issues rather than solving the real problems of people. Attempts for social changes make a virtue of narrow loyalties of caste and religion, generating sub-cultures like favoritism, lure for easy money, nepotism and, in-discipline in the society. Caste and communal conflicts are increasing. There are sectarian and regional imbalances generating social and psychological tensions.
• Technological advancement – Scientific and technological developments has endowed human with tremendous power both to preserve and destroy. At slightest provocation, people do not hesitate to unleash destructive powers accessible to them. That is one of the reasons for increase in the incidents of violence and crimes.
• Occupations and work-culture in Independent India – No doubt, traditional Jajmani arrangements of occupations has been weakened after Independence. Many new kinds of occupations, white-collared and blue-collared, have been continuously added to the traditional jobs of pre-industrial-society of earlier days, such as in IT industry, manufacturing arena, automobiles industry, pharmaceuticals sectors, construction business and telecommunication sectors etc. Access to these jobs depends on formal education, certificates/degrees/diplomas. For getting a job, or further their career prospects, individuals have to learn and hone their knowledge and skills in formal centres of education and training. They have to attain certificates/diplomas from formal training centres to get employment or to further their future prospects.
• From community-based employment system, it has become individual based. It gives to all its citizens liberty, equality, and fraternity. It gives full freedom to individuals to select any job of their liking.
• Industrialization and modernization have widened horizons for modern generation. Many new careers emerged in the job-market. Today there are ample of choices in matter of profession. A youth can choose an innovative and creative career. Careers in gemstone designing, mass media, fashion designing, legal profession or in management are becoming very popular. Specialization in each area has again created in each area many new opportunities. Only in present neck to neck competitive world, an individual requires to attain necessary qualifications.
• Now, India is a democratic country, having faith in the concepts of “Welfare State” and “Development administration”. It has all the resources, a nation needs for development – men money and material, most important amongst the three being human resource. Its total labour-force is about half a million. Pace of development was quite slow immediately after Independence. There were many constraints at that time. For a long time, there were very few options that ensured a secure and successful career for educated youth like government services, medicine, engineering or teaching. Despite all the constraints, India has not only picked up the backlog, it has missed during first two industrial revolutions, but by the time third industrial revolution happened during 1970s, it emerged as one of the most successful in the world after third great information technology revolution.
• It is estimated that by 2020, India will have the largest and youngest labour force in the world. Total labour-force is about half a million. Their average age will be less than 30 years. There is no dearth of talent, intelligence, quality or knowledge in any given area. There is tremendous amount of skilled and unskilled manpower, all kinds of raw materials, a good legal system, a huge market and potential to export virtually everything, provided the cost of its inputs are kept at international levels. India is the 11th largest economy in the world and is 4th largest purchasing power parity.
• It is a land of entrepreneurship with largest number of self-employed. About 52% of Indians are self-employed, about 55% in rural communities and 41% in urban areas. Many of these (about 20%, according to the international labor organization) are at the bottom of pyramid.
• Since 1990, the workforce is facing tremendous pressures due to globalization and liberalization of world economy and consequent structural adjustment. The shift is more towards irregular, casual, temporary or contractual employment affecting adversely the quality and condition of employment. There are challenges of talent crisis, rising multi-generational workforce, increase in the global worker mobility, organizational changes and cultural issues emerging from the fast pace of business changes of the past decade. Manufacturing and service sectors would provide more lasting results.
• Present Prime Minister Modi has said, while describing India’s role in IT sector all-over the world, that earlier, in the eyes of Western society, India was supposed to be the land of ‘mysticism, poverty and snake-charmers’. Now it is known as a nation, which plays with the “Mouse”. Since the early 1990s, the Indian IT industry has been growing at a phenomenal rate with several phases of growth and development over the last three decades. Digital technology, Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, etc., are all common words today. Bangalore, one of the most dynamic cities in the world, also known as the Silicon Valley of Asia, is in India.
• During recent global financial and economic turmoil, India has shown that it has talent for creativity in the face of adversity. It has the capacity to emerge without much difficulty from the crisis. Bringing together India’s creativity in entrepreneurship and youthful dynamism could lead to sustained inclusive growth and overcome the recent economic slowdown.

Neither traditional jajmani system nor modern system of occupations flawless – Historical development points out that jajmani system worked well, till the society was simple and gave importance to moral values. Now present-day youth have been caught within the vicious circle of modernity. It seems very difficult for them to come out the web of modernity. After Independence of India, finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected. Processes of industrialization and modernization have drastically changed this traditional system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier. Now, everything is moving very fast, in this space age. Knowledge after the process industrialization and modernization especially after revolution in information technology, has increased much faster than human ability to handle it.

What to do – Consecutive Governments of Independent India are moving in circles to find out full-proof solution for the present problems of unemployment and poverty. But still it seems very difficult for it to come out the web of modernity. While trying, authorities have ignored simple solutions of day today problems of common-men.

As early as Dec.10, 1919, Gandhiji wrote in Young India, “The immediate problem before us is not how to run the government of the country, but how to feed and clothe ourselves.”  In 1964, Shastriji, while taking charge as PM, has said, “Of all the problems facing us, none is more than that of the dire poverty, in which tens of millions of our countrymen continue to live.” Circumstances of last two centuries, earlier because of the apathy of alien rulers and now unprincipled politics to create more-banks, have led the nation towards politicization of caste and its systems. Agony of “Have-nots” remains almost the same – deprived and exploited, earlier because of alien rulers and now because of ruthless and valueless politics.

Combination of new knowledge and positive points of traditional arrangements may bring positive results. Earlier some occupations, which were viewed with disdain and contempt by modern society, have been hijacked by educated and smart persons. They did market surveys, hijacked many traditional occupations and made them profit oriented, some were modernized like mechanization of fishing or leather industry. And some of them such as of barber, washerman etc., have been re-christened as saloon, laundry etc. Now they themselves employ poor traditional workers, earlier practicing such occupations independently.

In the 21^st century, drastic changes are happening every-day at a very fast speed with modernity. It has have brought both prosperity and poverty simultaneously.  Government should make maximum utilization of available resources of men, money and material within minimum time and cost limits. It should do a thorough research to assess the demand of work-force in Agriculture sector, Service-sector, Industrial sector or in the sphere of infrastructure etc. And then create required jobs in each area. At present, to facilitate more employment opportunities, Government’s focuses more on creating large number of jobs, whether job- market needs more people or not. It puts extra burden on national budget.

For proper treatment of the aliment, correct diagnosis is required. Modernity has generated many new kinds of problems. It has weakened Jajmani arrangements and its work-culture to a large extent without taking any notice of its plus points like division of labour, combination of inter-dependence in socio-economic life and self-reliance in personal life, understanding and cooperation between employer and employees, learning in a natural way within their families under training and guidance of their ‘elders’ without investment, transfer of skills through practice and experience; not through formal classroom lectures, which often kills the originality and verve of the people, clear vision of rights and duties at individual-level and at community level.

There are certain points in Jajmani system, which should be appreciated, like its principles of “Division of Labour” “give and take relationship”, “Inclusive nature”, “Everyone’s Support, Everyone’s Effort, and Everyone’s Development (Sabka Saath, Sabka Prayaas and Sabka Vikaas). It automatically de-centralizes the authority and controls its misuse. The separation of rights and duties combined with the “principle of inter-dependence” develops its own system of checks and balances over arbitrary use of authority. It has “Decentralized authority” and guides all sections of society to follow “self-discipline”. It develops a clear-cut vision of rights and duties/responsibilities of each social group individually and collectively according to the requirements of different occupations at different points of time. It channels efforts, energies and capacities of different sections of society in a definite direction and inspires people to do their duties sincerely, honestly and to try for action par excellence. Every occupational group is an independent entity, having its own hierarchy, customs, traditions, value system and rights and duties. It assures that no occupation is high or humble, whether of a priest, warrior, Shudra or yogi were equally important for the society. Therefore, all occupations are right, respectable and worth pursuing.

Conclusion – Once changed, times could never go back to the earlier times. However, fusion of old and new can always be done after analysing their pros and cons. Modern developments in the spheres of science and technology along with the time-proofed values and systems of traditionalism can be combined. It has been seen India has always been a pool of talents. Some have wisdom/knowledge, some have organizing power and some having skills. had worked well till the life was simple and people had some regards for moral values. It has become weak now because modern way of life has become quite complex, mechanized and artificial. People have gone far away from the nature and confined themselves indoors within the cocoon of their comfort zone.

Don’t leave traditional occupations abruptly – Though modern India has given full freedom to individuals choose a job of their liking. First, they should make themselves mature and capable enough to understand what they desire, what can they do and how they can enable themselves utilize the available opportunities (‘to hook the fish’). They should not out-rightly reject the option of following traditional professions.

Even now, many smart individuals prefer to follow their family occupations. And they are doing very well. It has been seen that a Marwari, traditionally belonging to business community, invests his money in share market with more ease and confidence than a graduate from other communities possessing a degree in business management. In 21st century, the trend of following family occupations is increasing continuously in many sectors, like the Film world, legal profession, business world.

Deep study of job-market by pane of experts – There should be a panel of experts to guide the task of research in this field, to have a close review and study of performance problems and then analyse the present and future needs of the society, individual-wise, class-wise, level-wise and function-wise. What is needed is –

• Rational Division of all functions and occupations are needed for present-day requirements and future growth of society
• Assign the work on the basis of natural endowments, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, skills, personal needs and other innate characteristics.
• Decentralization of authority and resources.
• Develop automatic system of checks and balances.

Sound system of ‘Education’ and ‘Training’ needed -Under present circumstances, creation of a sound system of education and training is urgently required to prepare modern youth to meet challenges of 21^st century and to deal with present competitive and complex life-style. Sound system of education and training would improve performance of new entrants and contribute to organizational growth.

Age of specialization – Gone are the days to depend on Jacksonian theory that with the help of common sense and little intelligence, one can perform any kind of work. This is an age of specialization. Knowledge, skills and the need for specialization in present space age have been growing faster than human ability to handle it. As specialisation increases more, as knowledge advances and as new type of occupations emerges into the scene. Modern life-style has become quite complex, mechanized, and artificial.

Neither education nor training alone can serve the purpose. Focus on quantitative increase has subverted all the attempts to improve the quality of teaching and learning or preparing youth for employment by developing the required skills. It has led to continuous fall in the standard of higher education. Through a sound system of education and training, knowledge, understanding and attitudes of the job-seekers can be improved. they will be better adjusted to their working environment. Proper `training’ in newly emerged areas of employment would help trainees to acquire and apply knowledge and skills, which they do not possess, but are needed by the occupations, of which they are a part. Thus, it would improve the output of their work – quantitatively and qualitatively.

To bring improvement in job-market atmosphere and make job-seekers employable, Government should pay more attention to employment needs and encourage entrepreneurship. Gaining mere knowledge is not the purpose of learning. There is a need for ‘education and training for all’ and through it, to develop an understanding of social and economic problems and of society and public affairs generally. Combination of education and Training can prepare youth for doing their jobs efficiently. Both are necessary inculcating knowledge and modifying behaviour, attitudes and beliefs.

As Khalil Gibran has said, a little knowledge that acts is worth more than much knowledge that is inactive. Also, one whose knowledge is confined to books cannot use his knowledge wealth when the need for them arises. Knowledge, the object of knowledge and application of the knowledge – all the three are equally important for motivating to take a wise action.

Thanks to recent advances in science and technology, any kind of information in any area of human knowledge or about any aspects of life is easily accessible, that too at the door-step of each and every individual. It has made the present generation much more informed about the developments happening anywhere in the whole world and knowledgeable than previous generations. But only gaining knowledge is not enough. Khalil Gibran has pointed out that a little knowledge that acts is worth more than much knowledge that remains inactive. A person, whose knowledge is confined to books, is unable to use his wealth of knowledge, when the need arises. Knowledge, the object of knowledge and application of the knowledge – all the three are equally important for motivating to take a wise action.

‘Vision of skill India’ – The vision of present Prime Minister Narendra Modi about ‘Skill India’ is appreciable. So is Modi’s government’s Agni path scheme for recruitment, training and posting in Armed forces. If implemented properly, it will enable the present-day youth more disciplined and to meet present day challenges by imparting new knowledge, new skills, and inculcating new attitudes and new spirit in newly recruited personnel.  

Opposition political parties blame Modi government saying it has failed to create jobs for about 400-500 million illiterates and 200-250 million semi-ill-literates, that too, in its organized sector. According to a West Street Journal, every year 1.2 crores of youth join labour force. But only 55 lacs get jobs. In any democratic welfare state, government plays the role of a facilitator. It is not responsible to generate/create enough jobs for all of its unemployed citizens. At present, Government is the biggest employer in the organized sector of job-market. On public demand, it has already created much more jobs in the government than are required.

As Narayan Murthy points out “If we want to give jobs to 400-500 million illiterates and 200-250 million semi-ill-literates, we have to go in for low-tech manufacturing that does not require high levels of education. … This is how China, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea did it”.                                                                  

 In a changing world, nothing can be more disabling than its isolation of past. Nothing is more needed than the constant interpretation of what was seen then in terms of what is seen now. Today must be a constant challenge to the opinions, systems and practices of yester times. Therefore, people should not retain a system or outlook, which in the light of modern times can be replaced by a better form and which could be more effective and beneficial to the people. At the same time, society must not sacrifice an ancient form or system to an unreasoning passion for change.