Hinduism and caste system

^{“Traditional living had been an anchor, keeping our boat in safe harbour, Now that the anchor had gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.”}

“Caste and Hinduism succeeded in doing in India, what no state, no conqueror and no economy was able to do – the establishment of a single unified system of society throughout the whole of India, accommodating numerous semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places), a system of society, which was able to comprise a greater range of local differences in a single system than any society has previously accomplished.”  And

“Through caste system, India has simultaneously accommodated “it to an almost endlessly varied system of semi-autonomous community and at the same time, it brings considerable unity, harmony and condition of peace.” …. And it “succeeded in wielding an enormously varied plurality of semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places and adopting themselves to many different conditions into a single system of society…” (Don Martindale, India since 1947, p 39)

DNA of Hinduism and caste system

Part 1  Introduction

Hinduism – There is a group of critics which considers that since there is no founder of Hinduism like Jesus Christ or Prophet Mohammad or any code book like Bible or Kuran, it is not at all a religion or Dharma. There is another group of Philosophers, thinkers intellectuals and reformers which thinks that Hinduism Many many knowledge persons from time to time contributed to its growth, Hindu Dharma is a science. It has been developed over centuries for giving right direction to the society by their own research and experiences. Because, Hinduism is a scientific religion, it is called Sanatan Dharma (based on eternal values). It presents one of the oldest,  continuous and uninterrupted living culture and civilization in the world. Sometimes, during 19th century, English writers have added ‘ism’ into the word ‘Hindu’.

Hinduism, culture and philosophy, in its purest form, as one of the most scientific ideology and way of living ever developed anywhere in the world. Hindu values, systems and principles have always remained an inspiring icon of peace, harmony, compassion and other human values for the whole universe. Caste system associated with Hinduism has worked as one of the instruments to maintain the continuity of Indian culture and civilization without interruption.

Gold-mine of Knowledge – The gold mine of Hindu knowledge in different spheres of real life still commands the respect and attention of an average Indian. It has inspired not only Indians, but foreigners as well.  Intellectuals from various countries have translated it in their own languages and reinterpreted it for a rational mind. reinterpreted it for a rational mind. Values and principles of Hinduism have always remained an inspiring icon of peace, harmony, compassion and other human values for the whole universe. It has guided people not only to live a quality of life here in this world, but also tells how to make life better after death.  Its rituals are techniques for leading a harmonious life.They speak of everything- on staying healthy, social evils, improving concentration and tenets of behaviour, which are relevant even today.

When in the past, the rest of the world was passing through the Dark Age, India was full of light. The first few centuries are recognized as the golden period of Indian history. During this period, arts, commerce, crafts, philosophy and knowledge flourished magnificently. Its people reached a high level of intelligence having specialization in different areas. It was rich in literary, philosophical and religious fields.

Issues – There are so many conflicting views about Hinduism and its caste system, that common men get confused. What is Hinduism, a religion of Hindus, a culture or a way of life? Has Hinduism and its caste system become obsolete in the light of modern times? If yes, then why along with caste system, Hinduism has not been replaced by other religion/religions? Why not only Hindus, but other communities living in India and having faith in other religions are influenced by the principles of Hinduism and values and systems of caste system?

Origin of the terms ‘Hindu’, ‘Hindustan’ or Hinduism? –  India and its people are known by different names. India is also known as Bharat, Hind, Hindustan. India and its people as Hindus, Hindustani, Bhartiya or Indians. The name Hindu refers to Indo-Aryans people. Each of these terms has historical significance.

• Bharat – Ancient India, was referred to as Bharat-varsh and its people  as Bhartiya. Derived from the Sanskrit term ‘Bharata’ that means ‘the cherished’, this name dates back to the ancient ‘Hindu Puranas’ (Hindu scriptures). According to it, the legendary Emperor Bharata was the first conqueror of the entire Indian subcontinent and the founder of the famous Bharata dynasty. After him, the Indian land is known as ‘Bharatavarsa,’
• Hind, Hindu and Hindustan – The credit of the emergence of the terms Hind, Hindu or Hindustan goes to Sind river. These terms have been in use in Greek since Herodotus (4th century BCE). The invaders from Persia and Greece came to Indian subcontinent around 5th century BCE. They took inspiration from the name of river Sindhu, which runs mostly through present day Pakistan, Jammu & Kashmir in India and Western Tibet. And people living there, mostly Indo-Aryans, were called  Hindus (‘Sindhu’). The term ‘Hindu’ is the Persian equivalent of  ‘Sindhu’. And their religion and culture were termed as Hinduism.
• Hindusthan – When invaders came to India from land route, they called the land beyond Sind river as Hindusthan. ‘Stan’ in Persian means ‘land’ or ‘country,’ much like ‘sthana’ in Sanskrit means ‘place’. In the early 11th century a satellite state of the Ghaznavids in the Punjab with its capital at Lahore was called “Hindustan”. After the Delhi Sultanate was established, north India, especially the Gangetic plains and the Punjab, came to be called “Hindustan”.
• India – By 13th century, India became a popular alternative name for Hindustan. Since then, Latin term “India” has been widely in use for the Indian sub-continent. During the British Raj, instead of Bharat or Hindustan, where Indo-Aryan culture is strongly based there. The term ‘Hindus’ evolved to ‘Indos’ and made its first ever appearance in Old English in 9th century and re-emerged in Modern English in the 17th century. After Independence, it is known as the “Republic of India”.

Hinduism as a way of living, a culture/civilization – Along with a religion, Hinduism is also a philosophy, a culture and an Art of living to lead a Quality of Life.

According to Hindu Mythology – Believers in Hindu Mythology think that Hinduism, its culture and civilization has been existing since times-immemorial. With the passage of time, a large number of social groups migrated into India, earlier from the land route, later from sea route from other parts of the world. They settled down here and ultimately merged into the mainstream of Hinduism.

Historical Evidences – Historical evidences show that Hinduism as a Vedic culture originated during the period of Indus Valley Civilization (around 3300–1300 BCE on the Indo-Gangetic Plains, (in northern parts of India) and matured by 2600–1900 BCE). It spread/flourished throughout India during 1500 BC and 500 BC. The blending up of migrating social groups with that of the indigenous people living in this region gave rise to Vedic Culture of Hinduism.

Hinduism as Vedic culture – The Vedic culture is a magnificent example of scientific division and orderly arrangement of rules. Its literature contains in itself vast human knowledge, about almost all the aspects of life, be it phonetics, arts, literature, medicine, polity, metrics, law, philosophy, astrology or astronomy.

Is Hinduism merely a Religion? – Somehow it is difficult for the Western world to understand the true meaning, ethos and nuances of Hindu “DHARMA”. They describe Hinduism as a religion/religious tradition. To them, it is a set of religious beliefs like Christianity or Islam. They have  literally translated the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’ into English as ‘religion’.

Hinduism not merely a religion – Hinduism is not a merely a religion like Christianity or Islam. ‘Hinduism’ is  ‘a way of life’ and ’fusion of various beliefs’. It is mainly based on the principle ‘Dharma’/Sanatan Dharma. (Before the colonization of India, Hinduism was popularly known as Sanatana Dharma). At present, in the world, Hinduism is followed by 15%, after Christianity followed by 33% and Islam by 24.1%  of the world population. It is supposed to be one of the oldest and largest religion

Origin of ‘Hindu ‘Dharma’, much older – Hindu ‘Dharma’ of Indus Valley Civilization is much older than the meaning of the term ‘religion’ in its present sense. The meaning of ‘religion’ in its present form was non-existent, when Upanishads (Vedic texts) were composed, containing the earliest emergence of some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The roots of Hindu Dharma can be traced back to prehistoric times, over 5,000 years ago. In the past, gradually Hinduism spread all over South-eastern Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. Hindus worship a single god with His different forms.

Origin of the term “Religion” – According to the philologist Max Müller (the 19th century), the term ‘Religion’isoriginated from the Latin word ‘Religio’ meaning“to bind together.” It wasused originally to mean reverence for God or the gods, careful pondering of divine things, piety.

Renaissance Movement separated worldly things from Spirituality – After Renaissance movement, the term ‘Religion’ was used as a set of religious beliefs. It was first used in the 1500s to distinguish worldly things from spirituality  and  morality and set the domain of the church. From that time onwards, religion meant belief in or worship of God/Gods and a system of religious beliefs and practices.

Narrow meaning of ‘Hinduism’, as merely a religion, has been started in India only after the colonization, under the influence of Europeans, especially the British. Sometimes, during 19th century, English writers had added ‘ism’ to Hindu and termed their religion and culture as Hinduism.

Despite centuries of foreign rule, about 79.8% of the population of India identify themselves as Hindus, (roughly about 966 million people) as per 2011 Census of India, who have faith in the Vedic principles of Varna, Dharma, and Karma. 14.2% of the population follow Islam and the remaining 6% adhere to other religions like Christianity, Sikhism, Jainism or Buddhism etc.

Hinduism accepted other faiths as they are – Hinduism even as a religion has never tried annihilate other faiths, or the way of living, internal order, customs, culture or language of the people having faith in other religions of the world. Since ages, a large number of social groups migrated to this area from other parts of the world and willingly merged into the mainstream of Hindustan. Whenever migrated social groups desired to join the mainstream of Hinduism, they were neither prevented to join it, nor were they allowed to disturb its existing internal social order. Rather all the incoming groups were welcomed and given enough freedom to prosper according to their internal rhythm.

Hinduism as Philosophy – Hindu Philosophy is the base of Hinduism.  It has taken thousands of years to take a shape. It cannot be found in one single authoritative text, nor can it be attributed to one single author. All its principles cannot be found in one single authoritative text, nor can it be attributed to one single author.

Part II Hinduism as a Philosophy

How Principles of Hindu Philosophy passed on up-to present generation –  Hinduism has been followed by the majority community (Indo-Aryans) living in India since ages. The priestly schools had devised a most remarkable and effective system of transferring knowledge to succeeding generations in the form of hymns, restricting it only to those, possessing brilliant feats of memory and capability to keep extreme sanctity. Later on, it was put together in ‘Vedas’, ‘Smritis’ ‘Sutras’, and ‘Upanishads’. These Epics “contain an ocean of knowledge in a jar.”[i]

Hindu philosophy, simple and in conformity with nature – The speciality of Indian philosophy is its simplicity, solidity, and conformity with the forces of Mother Nature. Vedic literature, Scriptures and philosophy of Hinduism are described in’Vedas’, ‘Smritis’ ‘Sutras’, ‘Upanishads’, Ramayan and Bhagvat Gita etc. These are not merely the scriptures/religious/spiritual books, but also a perfect guide to lead a quality of life. The ”Rig Veda” , dated to between 1500–1200 BCE is said to be the oldest  complete religious holy book that has survived into the modern age. Ramayana and Mahabharat are the two great epics of Hinduism.

Vedic literature was mostly written by non-brahmins. Ramayan was composed by the Tribal Balmiki. Ved Vyas, who classified four Vedas and wrote Mahabhart, was born to a fisher-woman (a Scheduled Caste person). All Hindus consider Teachings of Ved Vyas, Saint Vashisht, Valmiki, Krishn, Ram, Muni Agastya, Vishwamitre, Shrunga, Gautham Budhdh, Mahavir, Tulsidas, Thiruvalluvar, Kabir, Vivekanand, Gandhi, or Narayan Guru etc most valuable

Laws of Manu/Manu Smriti or  Mānava-Dharmaśāstra also leaves a deep impression in the minds Hindus. Mythologists believe that Manusmriti is the record of the words of Brahma and the code of conduct for inter-caste relationships in Hindu society. The time of its recording is uncertain, but some believe it to be about 200 BC.

Manu Smriti was a hybrid moral-religious-law code and one of the first written law codes of Asia. It still sustains paramountcy in  conservative Hindu society in spite of its age and many controversies linked with it. 

Principles of Hindu Philosophy – Following are some of the basic principles of Hindu Philosophy:-

• Atma (Self) and Parmatma (Creator of Universe) – The Vedas conceptualize “Brahman” as the Cosmic Principle. ‘Brahman’ is a key concept found in the Vedas, and it is extensively discussed in the early Upanishads. According to Principle of non-duality, Atma and Parmatma are the two integral parts of the same God, and therefore inter-linked. the also known as ’Bramhan’/’Parmatma’ (God). The ultimate purpose of human life, according to Indian thought, is to unite with the ultimate Reality, the Divine/Brahman.

• Meaning of Brahman “world soul”/”cosmic soul”) or Parmatma (Highest Divine Reality) – In Upanishads, Brahman or Parmatma is described as a ‘Ultimate Supreme Divine Reality”, “world soul” or “cosmic soul.” He has been variously described as the creator and destroyer of the entire Universe. He is all-pervasive, infinite, permanent, eternal truth and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. HE is present in all the objects, including human body. He is essence of this universe and way for ‘Atman’ to achieve Sat-cit-ānanda (truth-consciousness-bliss).
  • According to Upnishad, every human has two components – the body and the soul. Death can destroy a human Body, but Soul is indestructible. Body, which is  (made up of eight elements earth, water, air, sky, fire, mind, intellect and ego). Death merely changes the form of the body. Human body does not retain its original form or shape and changes its shape even in one life with moving times.
  • Atman –Atman resides within a body of any living thing, be it a human, an animal or a tree. means ‘Eternal Self’ or ‘Real self’. It is often referred to as ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’ beyond human body or illusions/false ego of human mind. It indicates the true self or essence, which underlies human’s existence. Atman (soul) is the spiritual identity of human body. Body gets destroyed, but not the “Atman”. Like Parmatma, Atman is also eternal, being the integral part of the Supreme.
  • Principle of Reincarnation – Hinduism believes in the Immortality of the soul, and in the ‘Principle of Reincarnation’. It means that the soul is a deathlessness entity. After death it is reborn again and again depending on the deeds of previous birth till it attains salvation. After several births and deaths of body, one can reach a state of immortality. But once it attains Salvation, it is not born again.

Ultimate purpose of human life, Moksha/Salvation – The ultimate purpose of human life is Immortality/Salvation/Moksha, get rid of the pangs of rebirth and death. In order to set itself free from the cycle of multiple rebirths and deaths, one should do follow the path of ‘Dharma’. Here dharma means ‘Sadachaar’ (good behaviour) by keeping purity and sincerity in  ‘Aachar’, ‘vichaar’, and ‘karma’ (thinking, behaviour and action). Good deeds of human can help to reach up to the stage of salvation. One needs to practice continuously detachment by restraining one’s senses from drifting towards the objects of worldly pleasures, (materialism and consumerism). A balanced mindset is required to practice detachment and keeping oneself away from illusions or irresistible lure for worldly pleasures.

• Avatars to save humanity from evil – Hinduism believes in Avatars. According to Hindu mythology, the Supreme power visits the earth from time to time in some form of Avatars to save humanity from evil. So far these Avatars have visited the earth – Mats avatar (fish), then to Kurma (tortoise)); Varaha (wild boar); Narsimha (half animal half mam); Vamana (dwarf); Parushrama with axe (tool); Rama, the Maryadapurusha; Krishna the playful and serious avatar; and ninth, Budha the enlightened one. The world is awaiting for the 10th avatar in the form of Kalki, a genetically supreme bionic man. (‘Know your religion through its philosophy’ by Prakash Shesh, the Speaking tree, TOI, January 14, 2016, p. 20)

Righteousness always wins over Evil – The morale of the stories about Avtaars is that Righteousness always wins over Evil. It inspires and encourages masses to follow the path of virtue and keep themselves away from evils. Different rituals, traditions, and customs give to the people, a purpose to live for and follow the path of righteousness.

• Teachings of Ramayana and Mahabharata – Mahabharata and Ramayana are two great Hindu epics, which commands the respect and attention of an average Indian. These Epics speak on everything, be it in the sphere of spirituality or material well-being – on keeping good relationship with other humans, staying healthy, overcome social evils, improve concentration and mannerism, which are relevant even today. The basic principles of these Epics  guides people to lead a worthwhile quality of life here in this world. And after death enable the soul to make its onward journey by improving the prospects re-births.  

Teachings of Bhagvat Gita – It is amazing that Bhagwat Gita, a book as old as 5000 years is still relevant even in the  age of Artificial Intelligence(AI) of 21^st century. Teachings of Gita give an exercise to human minds in the same manner as yogic exercises to bodies. It has solutions to all doubts, fears, dilemmas, problems etc. and guide humans to live a happy, peaceful and prosperous life. Following five basic principles of Gita can change human life positively –

1. Focus on your action and not on the results – Focus on your action and not its results. “Karm Karo, Fal ki Chinta mat Karo”. (Verse 47, Chapter 2, Bhagwat Gita) Because results are not solely dependent on your efforts. Result depends on other factors as well like other people, circumstances or atmosphere etc. If results are not as per your expectations, pain is unavoidable.
2. Do not resort to inaction – When the work is hard and burdensome,  never lose interest and attach oneself to inaction (निष्क्रियता).
3. Be Fearless – The biggest fear in our lives is “Fear of Death”. Fear creates deterrence in whatever you wanted to do it in life. Only body is destroyed, Soul is glorious, fearless, free from old age and immortal.
4. Eliminate fear of death from your mind. (Verse 20, Chapter 2, Bhagwat Gita)
5. Gateways to hell/unhappiness – There are three gateways to unhappiness – Lust, Greed and Anger, abandon these three completely as it disturb the balance of mind and soul, and leads to self-destruction. 

Following are lessons of Gita give an exercise to human minds in the same manner as yogic exercises to bodies:

• Detach from illusions and attach to Divine. Give priority to divinity. See divinity all around.
• Have enough knowledge/intellect/devotion to see the truth as it is.
• Attachment is the cause of all distress.
• Detachment is the way to progress and prosperity.
• The attainment of True Knowledge is the ultimate aim of all such deeds.
• Fight for right cause in life is the ultimate solution to all problems.
• Live a simple life-style that matches your vision.
• Always remain steady.
• Renounce the ego and attain salvation leading to unending peace and happiness.
• Every act should be done in moderation.
• True Knowledge is far Superior to the knowledge of the Sacred Scripts.
• Stress is on Detachment and Equanimity. Happiness and unhappiness should be considered alike. For achieving detachment or renunciation, Knowledge and intellect play an important role.
• Concept of Right And Wrong, according to Indian philosophy – Right and wrong are relative terms. The idea of sin and virtue, good and evil are creations of the mind. They reflect the needs of society and therefore bear not much value. Truth lies somewhere in between various differing opinions. Yesterday’s Right/truth/Justice may be today’s wrong/falsehood/injustice, and today’s right tomorrow’s wrong. Truth is like a chameleon in reverse. It always assumes colors other than those of its environment. People chase truth/justice without embracing it. To understand it one needs a balanced approach. A rational opinion about it can be formed only by keeping these four variables in mind:
• Desha (region) – The culture of a place, in which a person is born,
• Kala (time) -The period of historical time, in which a person
• is born,
• Shrama (Effort)-The efforts required of him at different stages of Life,
• Guna (Quality)-Aptitude and innate psycho-biological traits.
• Positive and negative Mindset of human beings (Gunas) – Hindu philosophy believes that the whole world of activities is a result of complex intermixing of three basic qualities of human nature Satva, Rajas and Tamas. When born, a person, is like a clean slate – pure, formless, undifferentiated Consciousness. What s(he) writes on it, depends on the relative strengths of three Gunas –Tamas, Rajat and Sattva. The categorization in these three groups is usually depend on degree of attachment-detachment, austerity, Purity/cleanliness of body, speech and mind, charity and positive or negative thinking.

‘Satva’ Guna (Positive mindset) – ‘Satva’ is associated with peace purity, knowledge with clarity in  thinking positive attitude and consistency in actions. (1) Fearlessness, (2) Cleanliness of mind and body, (3) Devotion towards God, (4) Acquisition of true knowledge, (5) Suppression of the senses, (6) Study of scriptures, (7) Recitation of God’s name, (8) Taking pain in following one’s own code of conduct, (9) Simplicity of mind, inner self and senses, (10)Non-violence in all its forms, (11) Speaking Truth in a pleasant manner, (12) Absence of anger, (13) Non attachment, (14) Peace of mind, (15) Not speaking ill of others, (16) Kindness towards all, (17) Forgiveness, (18) Patience, (19) Lack of ego and (20) Feeling ashamed while doing something against Laws or Traditions. “Sat” or “austerity” is required for pursuing knowledge,

‘Rajas Guna’ (Having power to control people and events)) –‘Rajas’ is associated with passion/lure for comfort, often makes an individual, self-centered.  Rajas represents itself by power, passion, action, energy and motion. Rajas Guna drives people towards passion, power, ambition, and love for comfortable living. It often makes an individual self-centred. It does not care much about any particular value. It can contextually be either good or bad. 

‘Tamas’ (Negative mindset) – Individuals with Tamas or negative thinking are the victims of ignorance, sloth carelessness. It usually suppresses good qualities and leads towards `Adharma” (immoral behaviour, harsh words), “Alasya” (laziness) and Agyan (ignorance, Lack of knowledge). Tamas/negative mindset manifests (1) Ego, Ahankar (2) cruelty/Inhuman behaviour, (3) Injustice (Anyay), (4) Lust (5) Over- pride (mad) (6) Greed (Lobha) (7) Anger (Krodha), (8) . Jealousy, (9) Attachment (Moh), (10). Selfishness (Swartha).

Persons with negative mindset are usually responsible for different kinds of social evils, exploitation and miseries of the people. Most of the time, they make their own life quite stressful, as there is a gap between expectations and reality. In order to keep oneself away from negative mindset, one should first ‘Think’ before taking any step, then ‘evaluate’, and try to be Creative and confident, while setting goals.

Inter-play of the three qualities determine personality of a person – Inter-play of the three qualities determine the tendencies, potentialities, limitations, traits and character of different individuals and give them direction for action. The material world through senses attracts human mind towards a mirage/illusion or attachment. Many a times, such attachment leads to impurities. Freedom of mind from attachment/illusion is consciousness. In order to become civilized, one has to keep in control and observance of cleanliness – of body, speech and mind. The purpose of human life should be to overcome Tamas, refine Rajat and inculcate Sattva.

• Hinduism provides legitimacy to Principle of Varna -Hinduism has provided legitimacy to the Varna followed by Jati-Pratha, which has prepared a political and social framework for Hindu society. Principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma are the Foundation pillar of Hinduism. Together these principles have given  a sustainable social structure and a distinct identity to Hindu society.

• Principle of Varna – Principle Of Varna has provided continuity and stability despite numerous foreign invasions, migrations and assimilation of various groups.

Division of Labour/work according to Attitude and aptitude – According to Hindu philosophy, individuals differ from each other in natural endowments, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, skills, personal needs and other innate characteristics.  Their physical strength, mental capacity and moral aspirations, like and dislikes, inclination and expectations of everybody in the society are not the same. Therefore, Principle of Varna assigns different activities to different sections of society according to its natural endowment/inclinations, qualities attitudes, aptitudes, Gunas (psychological characteristics), personal needs and other innate characteristics.

The doctrine of Varna distributes and organizes systematically the performance of various functions; provides  a quality of life to its people; defines roles, duties and vocations for different sections of society on the basis of their attitude and aptitude roles; organizes inter-relationship of various sections of society. This way, Principle of Varna has organized and distributed  performance of various functions systematically needed for the survival of society.

Manu’s classification of Hindu society is was based on the principle of ‘Division of Labour’. He has grouped the people into four Varnas according to their attitude and aptitude –

• Brahmins (Learners) – Persons who  have had qualities of “Sat”/“austerity” (needed for pursuing knowledge) are put in Brahmin’ category. In the past, they were basically are teachers, scholars, priests or advisors, not the rulers. They are assigned the job of guiding the society in right direction. Their sole income was biksha (alms) given by the landlords (non-brahmins)Ancient Greek philosophers have called such persons ’Philosopher King’.
• Kshatriyas (Warriors) – Action-oriented, courageous/brave persons having quality of ‘Rajas’ have been given the charge are  put in Kshatriyas group. Their job was to exercise power and to protect the whole society from internal or external aggressions. Ancient Greeks called them ‘Warriors’.
• Vaishyas (Business men) Business men inclined towards trade are put in Vaishyas group.
• Shudras (Workers) – Persons needing guidance of above three groups for doing any  job have been put in Shudras category.

Numerous castes and sub-castes emerged within each Varna – As population increased and more and more indigenous and foreign social groups were merged into the Hindu-fold, Vedic Varna system gave way to  Jaati-pratha. Assimilation of various social groups, indigenous and foreign, (be it racial, immigrants, locals, tribal, professionals or other groups) into Hindu-fold, gave birth to Jaati -pratha.  Each new group coming into its fold was assigned  a new separate caste identity. The way of living and culture of each identity has been carefully nurtured and preserved.

Basic difference between Varna and Jaati – Initially, according to “Smritis” one fitted into a particular Varna not by birth. It was based on  qualities and deeds. But membership of jaati was by birth. With the passage of time, circumstances and convenience tended to make even Varnas hereditary. 

‘Varnas’ were never more or less than four and always remained the same. Numerous castes and sub-castes emerged within each Varna. Castes had its ethnic roots as denoted by Jati and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in its Varna aspect. Each caste found its place under a Varna on the basis of their nature of work, its being ritually clean or unclean and amount of self-discipline, they exercised.

“Castes” have its ethnic roots as denoted by Jati and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in its “Varna” aspect. Almost all castes have found their place under a Varna on the basis of their nature of work, its being ritually clean or unclean and amount of self-discipline, they exercise.

Modern India – As against this system, modern India has stratified Indian society into five unbridgeable watertight compartments – Upper castes or caste Hindus, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Castes and Minorities. Employment/occupation/profession now depend on number of formal degrees/ diplomas/certificates. Jobs are divided into white-collared jobs, blue-collared jobs and menial/derogatory jobs. It is the contribution of Western world, a post-industrial-revolution development.

• Principle of “Dharma” – Scholars have repeatedly commented that the word ‘Dharma’ is not translatable in English. Words like law righteousness, ethics, morality all together are not enough to give justice to the meaning of Dharma. The principle of Dharma embraced within itself “religion”, “law”, “duty”, “righteousness”, “morality” and “conformity with truth”. Along with its being a “religious idea”, “Dharma” was also a “principle” and a “vision” of an organic society, in which all participating members were independent, yet their roles complimentary. 

Dharma guides individuals to remain true and to fulfil their duties earnestly, enables different groups to act cooperatively. It  regulates the behaviour and inter-personal relationship of its component members within the society. It provides universal, practical and eternal guidelines to be followed in personal life, family life, community life, social life, professional life and national life.

Common Dharma for all – Principle of Dharma has given universal, practical and eternal guidelines to be followed in personal life, family life, community life, social life, professional life and national life. All the people in the society are governed by “Dharma” at all times, be it a ruler or ruled, parent or child, teacher or student or man or woman. There is a common Dharma, which is applicable to all. These are the norms and values of good conduct, which lead individuals to the path of righteousness.

Specific and separate Dharma for different sections of society – Principle of Dharma also specifies role, duties, privileges and restrictions of each role separately. It prescribes a separate Dharma appropriate to each Varna, each class and each stage of human life. Separate Dharma for different communities is based on inherent qualities, aptitude and potentialities of its members. The Dharma of Brahmin was not that of a Shudra, or the Dharma of a student not that of an old man.

Follow Swadharma – ‘Dharma’ prepares an atmosphere to inspire people to do their own duties, ‘Swadharma’ honestly. Following one’s own Dharma gives everybody else opportunities to live and prosper socially, professionally, economically, and spiritually according to their own rhythm.

Will power to follow the path of ‘Swadharma’ – Moulding life according to Swadharma is not an easy task. It requires will power and a strong character. Therefore, persons with weak faculties finds it difficult to observe Dharma. “Dharma” along with “Karma” was the means, through which a person approached the desired goal of life, the ultimate aim being salvation from the cycle of birth and death.

Hindu culture assured people that proper performance of Swadharma with honesty and sincerity assures both, worldly honour and spiritual happiness. Proper assignment and performance leads the whole society to live quality of life. While performing Swadharma without hesitation, a person gets earns a rightful place in the society and a feeling of being an integral part of the society, not an outsider to it. Proper performance of Swadharma with honesty and sincerity assures both, worldly honour and spiritual happiness.

Principle of Karma with Detachment – Whereas, Western cultures have grown around the idea of `rights‘, forming the natural foundation of human relationship, Hinduism evolves around the concept of “duty, tolerance and sacrifice”. Emphasis on duty usually makes a person or a group humble and tolerant. It makes the inequalities, prevalent in the society, tolerable to an average Indian. It ensures social harmony and prevented rivalries and jealousies. Its helps people to adjust themselves, without much difficulty, to most drastic changes. India has achieved its freedom in a peaceful manner under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. Hindus are basically filled with a sense of duty.

Karma, the Central Theme of Gita – Karma is the central theme of Bhagwat Gita. The Philosophy of Gita is simple. It guides people ‘Rely on one’s own Laws and Traditions. Do one’s own duties/deeds without hesitation and with complete devotion towards God, and achieve what is generally achieved by such deeds. 

Together these principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma have prepared an atmosphere of co-existence for different sections of its society – be it ruler or ruled, rich or poor; and  have held together different castes and communities having diverse languages and practices for generations – thus making unity in diversity a reality.

• Work is Worship – Hindu Philosophy teaches that “Work is Worship”. Society assigns everybody a specific task to do as per one’s own karmas and destiny. A person earns a rightful place in the society by doing his assigned duties honestly. While performing one’s duty/action, one gets a feeling  that he is an integral part of the society, and not an outsider to it.

One should do without hesitation the duties/deeds assigned to him/her  by the society and with complete devotion towards God, and achieve what is generally achieved by such deeds. 

• No work superior or inferior – All kinds of work are worth pursuing and respectable, if done in its sincerely. No work is superior/high or humble/inferior/derogatory/ or waste. Any work done in its true spirit could never be derogatory or a waste. The work of a priest, warrior, manual worker or yogi, all are equally important for the society and are, therefore, right, respectable and worth pursuing. The idea of white-collared jobs, blue-collared jobs and menial/derogatory jobs is the contribution of Western world, emerged especially after industrial Revolution.
• Every act should be done in moderation – Gita teaches that control over mind is necessary for purification of Soul. And for purification of Soul, one should fulfil the duties assigned to him in proper manner and in moderation.
• Detachment – Work should be done with detachment.Dedicate the results of all your deeds to God. Detachment is the key to get control over restless mind. An individual should feel that he is the doer of the deeds. With detatchment, one can reach beyond the scope of the three qualities, saintly, worldly, and lethargic.
• Work, not for external award – Work is done not so much for its external reward, but for the intrinsic satisfaction towards realization of ‘Swadharma’. Society assigns each one a specific duty as per one’s own karmas and destiny. Everyone should do His/herthe duties/deeds assigned to him without hesitation and with complete devotion towards God, and achieve what is generally achieved by such deeds.

• Sanatan Dharma (Principle of Eternal Values) of Hinduism  – The term ‘Sanatan means eternal/beyond time and ‘Dharma’ means duty.It is said that things perfected by nature are better and more sustainable than anything else. The whole scheme of Sanatan Dharma is in conformity with time and forces of nature. All its instructions are in tune with the nature. It nurtures  basic instincts of human beings over nature. takes care of the basic physical, mental and spiritual needs of the human beings at different stages of life.

Sanatan Dharma is universal, eternal, applicable to all human beings  irrespective of race, caste or creed. Its norms of conduct takes care of their basic physical, mental and spiritual needs at different stages of life, which are as relevant even today, as it was earlier in ancient times. It attaches importance to social values. Its norms of conduct at different stages of life. are as relevant even today as it was earlier.  

Based on the experiences and deep study – Many learned sages and intellectuals, belonging to different communities at different point of time did  a deep study of natural instincts, inherent attributes, natural behavioural pattern and felt needs (physical, mental and spiritual) of humans at different stages of life. On basis of their experiences and deep thinking,  they formulated a compact life package, known as ‘Sanatan Dharma’.

• According to Sanatan Dharma, for living life fruitfully and aging gracefully, every  individual passes through four stages of life. At each stage of life, he performs different roles like role of a student or a house-holder. It tells clearly what are the rights and duties of a person at what time and what is right age to study or enter into the real life.

Four stages of human-life – According to it, there is one pre-stage followed by four stages in human life. Different stages of human life are known as Ashrams, which are as following :-

• Pre stage of Balyavastha or Childhood – First 5 or 6 years of infants’ and toddlers’ life is the pre-stage of learning. It is the best period of human life. This is the time for a child to learn and understand the first lesson of real life, about human relationships and mannerism. During this  period, the ground for  learning is prepared at home under the full-time attention, loving care and guidance of his parents. Constant interaction between parents and children prepares an atmosphere to develop child’s mental and physical faculties and character. It is the responsibility of parents to shape the attitude of their children. Obedience is expected from child.
• Brahmacharya Ashram, First stage of human life – After Balyavasha (childhood) and beforeentering into real life is the right time for learning. The duty of young and grown up child is to learn and acquire knowledge.  It is a period of strict discipline. Students should lead a simple life. They should not bother much for worldly pleasures/comforts., They should work hard and devote their full time to acquire knowledge. It is teacher’s job to impart knowledge, shape attitudes, cultivate skills and build work habits, so that when they enter into real life environment after completing their course, they are better adjusted. Teachers should help students to develop their mental and moral faculties and guide them to get control over their senses, mind and intellect. At this stage society rears, protects and gives its best as heritage to coming generation.
• “Grahasthashram/life of a householder” – Of all the Ashrams (stages) Grihasthashram has been given a high place of honour. Giving maximum importance to it shows that Indian philosophers and Epic writers attached great importance to social values.

During second phase of life, a person enters into the real life and joins work-force. It is the most energetic period of human life. As a householder, one raises family and enjoys the  married life. He gets a real ground to utilize one’s intellectual and physical capabilities. He works for financial and material success, get involved in economic activities.

• Rights – This is the time to enjoy life fully and fulfil all his desires and dreams, with emphasis on – Dharma (piety, morality, duties), Artha (wealth, health, means of life), Kama (love, relationships, emotions) and Moksha (liberation, freedom, self-realization).

• Duties – Householders are directly or indirectly in contact with the whole society. It is their duty to make direct contribution to the society, in consistent with the capacity, dictates of their knowledge and conscience. They are responsible to take care of their dependents, to look after the management, and the needs of  other three Ashramas, or financially help the people of other three Ashrams 

Dependents include elders, children, members of extended family, educational institutions and strangers in need of help. 

• Third Stage of life, Vanaprastha Ashram – Grihathashram is conceptually followed by Vanaprastha Ashram. At this stage, running after luxurious life style or material success is not the aim. After fulfilling familial liabilities, time comes to start to lead a retired life, to start process of withdrawal, to delegate authority to next generation, start process of detachment from familial bonds and renunciation of worldly pleasures should start.. It is the time for ‘Simple living and high thinking’, to start process of withdrawal, delegation of authority to next generation, detachment from familial bonds and renunciation of worldly pleasures. 

Elders can provide extended care, to help in taking decisions, maintaining discipline within their respective groups. Time can be utilized by doing social service like helping and taking care of poor, helpless members of society like widows, destitute or weak. Spare time can be spent in contemplation or attending spiritual discourses..

• Fourth Stage of life, Sanyas (renunciation) – At this stage, a person is completely free from any social obligation. It is a time for complete detachment, resignation and renunciation. to prepare oneself to leave this world and go to an unknown world. Realization of spirituality and wisdom is the aim.

Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and men were closer to nature, people could follow the principles of Sanatan Dharma without much difficulty. With the erosion of moral values and life becoming more and more complex, it became difficult for people to practice it.

• Knowledge, a never ending process (‘Neti’, ‘Neti’) – Vedas tell that creation and quest for knowledge is a constant process, without any beginning or an end. It is a never ending process (‘Neti’, ‘Neti’). Indian  Sages (Rishis and Munies) believed that even Vedas are not the end for quest for knowledge or prescribes any final absolutes.

According to Gita, Senses are superior to the body, Mind is superior to the Senses and Knowledge or intellect is superior to the Mind. Knowledge is better than Abhyas (practice), Meditation is better than Knowledge. Renunciation of the fruits of action is still better than Meditation as peace immediately follows such renunciation.

Knowledge, the key to know the truth – Knowledge is supposed to be necessary for giving Action (Karma) its due meaning, direction and value. It is necessary to know about one’s surroundings or understand what is right or wrong. Ignorance was considered to be leading to futile efforts destroying direction. Hinduism tries to inculcate discipline and sense of direction amongst ignorant masses through rituals, prayers, practices, and customs. But as said earlier it should not be followed blindly without understanding the purpose behind it.

There are choices before human beings – take action with developed mind/intellect or action with weak mind, bridled with desire, based on emotion, impulse, hatred, greed and selfishness. Intellect needs to be developed to make mind rational. Gita prescribes for ‘action’/’deed’ to be combined with intellect (knowledge with positive energies) governed by intellect makes a person calm and content. Knowledge with negative energies quite often leads to agitation/aggression and discontent.

Ignorance leads to futile efforts destroying direction. There are choices before everyone – either to take any action with knowledge and positive attitude or do a deed with ignorant/negative mindset.

• Self-discipline, self-reliance and self-restraint – Hinduism gives importance to the considerations of self-discipline, self-reliance and self-restraint. It  suggests all social groups or Varnas to lead a self-restraint and self-disciplined life-style in all respects, be it in the matter of daily routine, occupation or inter group relationship. In the past, knowledge, spirituality, morality, hygiene, cleanliness of body and mind (concept of purity and impurity) and usefulness of their work to the society as a whole were the considerations , which determined the social, economic and political status of a group within society vis-a vis other social groups. Purer a varna or caste was, higher it was considered. Greater were the self-restrictions imposed on its behaviour through rituals by the society.

Discipline was inculcated and a sense of direction was given to the general public through infinite variety of rituals, prayers, practices, customs and meditation.

• Tolerance and acceptance/interdependence – Hindu philosophy values interdependence, acceptance and tolerance. Since ages, Hinduism sends messages like ‘Live and let live’, ‘Vasudhaiv-Kutumbakam’ (The whole world is one family) and ‘accept others as they are’, Truth, Ahimsa, peace and non-aggression are imbibed in Indian ethos. It can be seen everywhere in common men’s way of life  in India. People  endure without much protest injustice and unfairness until they are pushed right to the wall. It has prevented its people to exercise coercion, force, violence or aggressions. It is the reason, why it is one of the oldest living culture in the whole world.
• Tolerance level of Hinduism  – Tolerance is most evident in the field of religion.  Hindu’s faith in an all pervading omnipresent god and multiplicity of god/goddesses as representing some portion of the infinite aspect of the Supreme Being inspires to accommodate people of all faiths.  Hinduism concedes validity to all the religions and does not lay down strictures against any faith or reject any religion or its god as false.  That is why, all the twelve major religions of the world are present and flourishing in India without much hindrance. 

Accepts others as they are – Hinduism values interdependence and accepts other communities as its integral parts.

1. It accepts that there are different paths leading to God and be humane;
2. It gives complete liberty to worship any god or goddess of their choice, as well as use their own methods of worship;
3. It does not impose its own codes of conduct on other faiths;
4. It is liberal enough to see atheism as a legitimate pursuit.

In the past, Hindus had accepted oppression and exploitation without much protest, while such situations, elsewhere in the world, would have led to bloody revolutions. Intolerance of people elsewhere in the world had compelled the people either to work under the threat of a whip or led to bloody revolutions as had happened in ancient Greece, Rome or other European countries. However, tolerance in India had kept on adapting itself to changing times and had prevented people from taking up the path of violence. It is continuously internalizing the changes and has kept on adapting itself to changing times. India has entered the modern era without any cultural break.

Area where tolerance is harmful – Even today, the people are tolerating the criminalization of politics, corruption, scams and scandals and inefficient governance without much protest. Governance of the nation is one such area, where tolerance is harmful, because it does not only hinder the development, but also pushes the nation backwards. Hindus have not raised their voice against inefficiency in administration, corruption, scandals, scams, oppression or exploitation by powerful lobbies so far. They have tolerated even criminalization of politics without much protest.  Elsewhere in the world, such situations would have led to strong protests/bloody revolutions.

• Hinduism a wonderful example of assimilation and Inclusiveness – More than anywhere else in the world, India holds a multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There has been co-existence of varied belief, pattern and thought due to inter-mixing and cultural mingling.

Adopted the path of assimilation – Beauty of Hinduism lies in the way, it has assimilated numerous social groups coming from different parts of the world at different points of time in waves immigrants, locals, tribal, professionals or others – into its mainstream unlike Islam or Christianity.

No conversion – It does not believe in conversion or imposing its beliefs, practices and customs on others. Hindu religion has neither repulsed any trend vehemently, nor allowed others to sweep its own established culture off the roots.

Caste-system used as a mechanism for inclusion of other groups – Caste system assigned each incoming new group a separate caste identity. Society remained stable, while offering a place to a new community. The system neither disturbed its existing internal social order nor prevented any new group to develop itself. Without any conversion, caste system made new groups its integral part. It never tried to annihilate their faith, originality, internal order, customs, culture or language. Instead, it gave all incoming groups freedom to prosper/make changes into their systems according to their internal rhythm.

III Caste system 

Don Martindale has described caste as “the system of social life, in which Hinduism was expressed. …  Caste and Hinduism succeeded in doing in India, what no state, no conqueror and no economy was able to do – the establishment of a single unified system of society throughout the whole of India (accommodating numerous semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places), a system of society, which was able to comprise a greater range of local differences in a single system than any society has previously accomplished.” Caste is unique Indian institution upheld by a complex cultural ideology.

Caste-system is inseparably related to Hinduism by traditional customs, values and systems. It is having both religious and social sanction behind it. In the present understanding of caste system, element of caste is dominant and a system has been considerably suppressed. Castes has its ethnic roots as denoted by Jati, and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in its Varna aspect.

Meaning of the term caste – The term “caste” was unknown in ancient India. The terms ‘Varna and jaati’ were used in ancient and medieval India to identify different social groups and sub-groups. The term ‘Caste’ has been in use ever since British came to rule India.

The term caste has originated from Portuguese ‘casta’, meaning race, breed, ancestry. Portuguese first used the terms ‘casta’ meaning “breed, race, caste and ‘casta-raça’ meaning ‘unmixed race’. Portuguese observers described that Hindu society in western and southwestern India has divided itself through caste system into different socially ranked occupational groups. In an effort to maintain vertical social distance, these social groups practiced mutual exclusion in matters relating to eating and, presumably, marrying.

Application to Hindu social groups ‘Varna’ and ‘Jaati’ was picked up by English in India 1610s from Portuguese casta. The Latin word for it is castus, meaning “chaste” or purity of breed. Subsequently, British have merged both the terms ‘Varna’ and ‘caste’ into one word ‘cast’ or ‘caste’. Subsequently ‘caste’ has become the established word for the combination of ‘Varna’ and’’jaati’. 

Later on, major European languages (notably Dutch and French) also, ‘caste’ in the same specific sense.  has become established term The term Caste was recorded officially in 1840 for the first time by European colonizers, to mean persons belonging to the same hereditary social group. Instead of using ‘Varna or Jati’ separately, they Since then, the whole scenario about caste was messed up. The meaning and understanding about caste system has been changed drastically. 

Mystified western world – Western world is mystified by amazing pluralities and unique social structure of India based on caste. It is difficult for the western world to understand the role of caste – past or present – in Indian society. Complete localization and unfamiliarity makes it difficult to understand and appreciate fully, caste as a system in its totality and to know the nuances, the nature, role (both in the past as well as in present) and value of caste as a system.

Caste-system is inseparably related to Hinduism by traditional customs, values and systems. The roots of Varna system and Jaati-Pratha are so deep,  that it is virtually impossible to think of India without it. It has been one of the dominant features still running through the entire social fabric of India. Caste has its ethnic roots as denoted by Jati, and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in its Varna aspect.

Meaning of the terms Varṇa (वर्णः) and Jaati – ‘Caste’ has its ethnic roots as denoted by Jati, and a ritualistic and symbolic significance in its Varna aspect. The term “Varna” is a Sanskrit word, which means type, order, colour or class. ‘Jati’ is also a Sanskrit word  meaning ‘Jana’. Membership of ‘Varna’ is based on the attitude aptitude and deeds of a person, whereas by birth, everyone belongs to a Jaati. ‘Jaāti’ refers to thousands of endogamous social groups, sub-groups and sub-sub- groups coming under each Varna, living across the subcontinent. A jati may be divided into exogamous groups based on the same gotras. (Dumont, Louis, 1980, Homo hierarchicus: the caste system and its implications, University of Chicago Press, pp. 66–67)

Origin of Varna and Jaati Pratha (Caste system) in India – The origin of ‘Varna or Jaati’ can-not be found in one single authoritative text like Christian’s “Bible” or Islam’s “Kuran”, nor can it be attributed to one single founder, like Jesus Christ for Christianity or Mohammad Sahib for Islam. It is the development of thousands of years. to develop with the association of numerous social groups into it at different point of time. It started with the arrival of Aryans hereditary kinship and tribal groups in India in waves, from different parts of the world.

Different shades and meaning of caste system with changing times – Caste system has survived the vicissitudes of time, and saved itself by erosion from within and assault from outside. Credit of its prolonged life goes to its adaptability, flexibility and absorptive nature, which has internalized even the alien influences. It has taken different shades and meaning with the changing times and places. Once changed, it never returned to its original form. Such flexibility is not seen in the West. When Christianity broke away from Judaism, it departed totally from the common cultural traditions. 

Wonderful process of assimilation – Wonderful process of assimilation and fusion of different social groups has been a continuous process of the Hindu civilization. It contributed to the cultural richness of Bharat.  All the sects present in India, whether foreign or indigenous, have been influenced greatly by Hindu thinking, caste system, its practices and systems.

Different stages of making and evolution of Varna/caste – Following are the different stages of the evolution of Varna/caste – 

• Caste during Ancient period -As Basham has pointed out, Caste system may well be called a natural response of many small and primitive groups of people, who were forced to come to terms, with a more advanced economic and social system. Caste system provided a mechanism, by which numerous discrete tribes, all sorts of groups and associations arising for political, sectarian or other reasons could be internalized and preserved within the whole.
• Pre-Vedic period – The making of caste system can be traced from the times of pastoral tribal society. Roughly ten millennia ago, people lived  in small migratory groups, living the life-style of wandering “nomadic herdsmen”. These small groups mostly lived in hilly areas, not far from rivers. Tribal communities were nomadic or semi nomadic and egalitarian. They depended on nature for its subsistence.
• Settled agricultural society – Then came the period of making of the agricultural societies. People started  cultivating land and settled down Gradually pastoral tribal society transformed into a settled agricultural society, confining its activities and life within a small area or territory. Clans and tribes settled permanently in different parts of the country. As reflected in ‘Rigveda’, during early stages of Vedic Age people ceased to be a wandering people, started a settled life.
• Entry of Aryans – Aryans entered into India in waves from land-side at different points of time. Aryans, after entering into India first conquered its original inhabitants of Northern part of India, colonized and established kingdoms, then Deccan and then south. During the period, it was possible to have high ranks, but not high social classes.
• Development of structures and systems – Socio-political structures and systems were evolved leisurely over about 2000 years (roughly between 2000 BC to about 600 BC) and kept on coping with the changes slowly, time had brought in.
• In the beginning people hardly possessed more than what was needed for their subsistence/survival.
• The practice of cultivation, rise of crafts and iron tools transformed the egalitarian society into fully agricultural and stratified society sometime during 6th century BC.
• Initially a simple class division was seen in the social structure, i.e. nobility and the ordinary tribesmen. Slowly, possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started. People started producing and possessing more than they needed. The kings collected their surplus yields.
• The power of kings gradually increased. For regular collection, administrative and religious methods were devised.

• Varnas and Jaatis (Caste) during Vedic Period – Vedic society is considered as the most advanced civilization in every respect be its social structure or its culture. This was the time when the social structure was taking shape under “Varna System”. Historical time of the origin and slow but steady evolution of Varna system is estimated around 3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE. It was the period of beginning of Indus Valley Civilization. Varna system originated and flourished in northern parts of India (on the Indo-Gangetic Plains of the Indian subcontinent) and later on spread throughout India during 1500 BC and 500 BC. Society was relatively egalitarian one. There was no distinct hierarchy of socio-economic classes or castes.

Emergence of “Jaatis” now known as Caste within each Vana – Later on, numerous racial, tribal, occupational and other groups entered in waves into India via land routes from different parts of the world. The assimilation of these migrating social groups into the  main-stream of Hinduism was done through jaati pratha. Each incoming new group was assigned a separate Jaati (caste) name. This way, numerous Jaatis emerged within each Varna. Jaati pratha had not only accommodated and bound migrating social groups into a single cultural system, but gave them full freedom to continue their own culture and way of living and flourish.

To discipline the society, Hinduism now clearly defined rights and duties. Along with all the freedom to flourish within its own soil, Hindu society imposed some restrictions as well. Slowly and steadily developed rules of endogamy, ritual purity, interdependence and hierarchical order of its social units. This way, Hinduism has neither repulsed any trend vehemently, nor allowed others to sweep its established culture off the roots.

• Castes during Medieval Period – Many changes took place, during medieval period in the caste system. Turks, Afghans and Mughals continuously invaded India. Invasion of Ghazni (998-1030 AD), and others, the establishment of Slave Dynasty (1206-1290), Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320), Tuglak Dynasty (1320-1412 AD) Sayyed Dynasty (1414-51) Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) and Mughal Empire (1526 to 1757) continuously pressurized Hindu Social system. Earlier they drained out the wealth of the nation to foreign lands.  But afterwards, they conquered and made India their homeland.

Downfall of Hindu Raj along with decline of traditional Hindu values, imposition of Zaziya on Hindus and intolerance of alien rulers towards their Hindu subjects made it difficult for Hindus to preserve their identity and indigenous culture. Hindu society turned inwards to save their identity. Excesses by rulers resulted in conscious efforts by Hindus to save their identity, values and honour by making caste rules and rituals stricter and more rigidly applied than before[i]. It gave birth to many social evils like Sati Pratha; Dowry, Purdah system or superstitions. Feudalistic attitude, extravagance and luxurious life style of rulers and those at the helm of authority had increased the disparity between the rulers and the ruled.

Despite of all these socio-economic and political changes, the institution of caste was independent of the government’s intervention till medieval period.   It made the Hindu society stable but not static. Traditional decentralized self-regulated systems were the mode for keeping checks and balances in the social life of the country. The influence of caste system was immense on public minds because:-

• The cultural endowments formed the basis of social status of different Varnas –
• The ranking of different Varna was not based on wealth or material gains, but on intellectual and spiritual attainments and on self-discipline.
• As late as the eighteenth century, no all-India hierarchical order of different Varna has taken an all-India character. Generally the position of Brahmins was considered at the top and that of Shudras at the bottom. The Brahmin strongholds were the centres of learning. But in between the two, there was an ambiguity about the status of all the castes, which was acceptable to all concerned in any local area. 
• This, itself, has given a large element of fluidity to caste system.

Upward mobility was possible for different groups by improving their attitude and mannerism.

• Close association of caste There was a close association of caste with occupation. As leading sociologists pointed out, in addition to their hereditary occupation, agriculture and army were open and had accommodated all social groups of society – indigenous or alien. The basic qualification for doing any work was mainly having the qualifications needed for that specific job.
  • There was no dearth of employment for aspiring workers.  A substantial labour market existed in agricultural sector. Immense influence  of powerful peasant was a reality of the rural life of Medieval India. Indian peasantry in UP, Bihar and MP were armed.  In fact, non-Kshatriya peasant provided leadership of most armed bands. They were numerically predominant and economically and politically strong at the village level. 
  • Military service was also accessible to anybody, from any strata of society including the lowest in the ritual terms.  There was no discrimination in recruitment and treatment of soldiers of any kind on the basis of caste.  Rajput status was given to soldiers. [Jain Girilal – The Hindu Phenomenon p9, 1994.]
• Members of any caste group did not exercise monopoly over a profession. It is an established fact of Indian History that Brahmin or even Shudras sometimes became the kings. Khatriyas and Shudra were accepted and revered as philosophers or spiritual teachers.  In order to increase their strength, there were times, when inter caste marriages took place in the past. ]
• Alternative ideologies and styles of life were available in India. The floating population, consisting groups like Gujjars, Bhattis, Rajput rangers, who remained outside caste system, were so strong, that they terrorized settled agriculturists for centuries. Forests, which competed with arable land in size and importance, till the 18th century, gave shelter and food to large sections of society and served as havens for those in search of escape from society.
• People of different social-groups enjoyed a large measure of freedom in respect of their internal customs, rituals and life styles. All activities were confined within a small local area, having very little links with the outside world due slower means of transport.  Only merchants visited different distant places.
• The plurality of society provided automatic checks and balances and controlled the arbitrariness or unbalanced growth of power of any group. Upward mobility was possible for different groups. Sometimes inter-caste marriages were also permitted. [ii]
• The local societies before British rule used to be self-sufficient mutually `supporting and caring” for each other. They were bound together by economic and social ties and had a strong bond of mutual dependence. Local character of society made close interaction and cooperation between different castes, a reality. Traditions and rituals required the participation of all social groups (castes). Even untouchables were assigned important social duties. Harijan women helped all castes at the time of child birth, sweepers beat drums in front of Hindu’s houses or in front of a procession at the time of an important ceremony, village barber spread news, arranged marriages and served food during celebrations.  Occasionally non-Brahmins or Harijans served as priests of temples of goddesses like Sita or Kali, where all castes made offerings.
• There was not much disparity between different forward or lower castes.  There was hardly any question of all India tyranny of any caste group.  Not a single group was identifiable as very strong-dominating all the others, or as an enemy to defeat.  Laws remained unmodified and flexible with the capacity to adapt to local customs and situations.  People in power and position cared for the lower castes in order to acquire and retain local followers. The system made upper castes generous in matters of food, drinks and loans, when required. The tropical climate of the country compelled the people to the distribution of surplus, as it was difficult to store anything for long. [Sriniwas MN,  Times of India, Dated September 9, 1990, p 6.]
• Teachings of Bhakti and Sufi saints like Sur, Tulsidas, Chaitnya Mahaprabhu, Nanak, Kabir etc. gave some breathing space to the rigidity of caste system, which suffocated the society during medieval India.

Pr. Rajni Kothari also accepts that till medieval times: –

• There was a hierarchical social order, through which infinite ambiguities had been accepted, tolerated and regulated.
• A multi-cultural framework of governance existed, which had restrained hegemonical and majority’s dominating tendencies.
• A highly flexible ethics code was there, through which constant and continuing distortions, clash of personalities, major paradoxes in elite behaviours and instances of humiliation, acrimony and hypocritical behaviours in the conduct of public affairs were managed.[Times of India, dated July 28, 1997,  p13.]

• Caste system during Modern Period – Caste system has always been a centre of attention for Westerners, politicians, intellectuals, activists or reformers from other faiths. It has been both defended and opposed vehemently in the political circles of modern India.

During Seventeenth century, many Dutch, Portuguese, French, British and Spanish companies came to India in search of market. Weakening of Islamic power, internal fights among various group leaders and communal unrest gave East India Company success not only in ousting other European companies from India, but also in establishing its rule in India and monopolizing its trade. Once firmly established, the authority was transferred from the Company to the Crown, through the Act of 1858.

After establishing their rule in India, British rulers adopted the policy of “divide and rule”. To keep their power intact, they played off one part against other, Prince  against Princes, Hindus against Muslims, province against provinces and caste against caste. They launched an ideological attack on Hindu practices and caste-system. To them, caste system was “discriminatory,” “iniquitous,” “exploitative,” “oppressive” “barbarous,” “uncivilized” and “highly stratified”. It was responsible for all evil social practices, feudalistic attitude, backward thinking, belief in dogmas and superstitions sustained by a unique set of rituals, and whimsical concept of purity and pollution.

Through Modern education system, British succeeded in disassociating many individuals from their traditional way of living, classical roots and knowledge. With it faded Indian values, philosophies, systems and traditions. It made many Indians to lose their faith in social values and systems. Many leaders like Mahatma Phule, Ambedkar or Gopal Ganesh instilled in the minds of millions of unlettered Hindus, venom against caste-system and the Brahmin community. They also held Caste system responsible for treating lower strata of society as lesser human beings; engaging them in forced labour, unsavoury jobs imposing many restrictions on them; preventing them from joining the mainstream of the society; and the subjugation of lower castes with the help of religion. They regarded untouchability as an inevitable concomitant of caste system.

There was another group of national leaders and reformers, who got alarmed at the erosion of Indian Culture, divisible policies of the rulers, economic loot, political subjugation, racial discrimination, assertion of lordly superiority over the subject on the ground of race, assumption of  haughty exclusiveness, persistent insulting and supercilious behaviour towards all Indians, exclusion of Indians from all places of authority and responsibility and denial of their capacity for self-governance united Indians against British rule. It gave birth to National movement.

Reformers also organized meetings to make ignorant masses aware of the social evils/real issues like superstitions or irrationality in observing rituals blindly. They advised people to stop treating low caste Hindus inhumanly. They advised to give underprivileged sections of society their rightful place in society. The intellectual ferment was strongest in West Bengal, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

In 1928, Raja Ram Mohan Roy founded Brahma Samaj in Bengal. He inspired the people of Bengal, UP, Punjab, Madras and other provinces, to form similar organizations and interpret religion rationally. Prarthana Samaj in Maharashtra (1867), Arya Samaj in Northern India, Rama Krishna Mission, Theosophical Society of India (1879), Dev Samaj in Lahore and Servants of India Society took up the job to awaken the masses. They talked about the greatness of Hindu Vedic culture and about Vedas as the source of all knowledge and truth. Swami Vivekanand founded the Rama Krishna Mission tried to reveal to the world Indian Philosophy and culture. Some reform institutes like Vivekanand’s or Rama Krishna Mission or Theosophical Society of India tried to familiarize the Western World, too, to the charm and graciousness of Indian Culture. Swami Vivekanand gave a call to “Return to Vedas”. He said, “Each nation like each individual has a theme in this life, which is its centre, the principle note, around which every other note comes to form the harmony. If any nation attempts to throw off its national vitality the direction which has become its own through the transmission of centuries the nation dies.”

They advised people not to be swayed away by Western culture. First they should know their own heritage and try to revive what is good in it.

• Caste system after the Independence – Seventy four years after the Independence, Indians have lost the excuse of blaming the British for anything going wrong. Since 15th August 1947, Independent India is committed to democratic, secular and egalitarian principles as enshrined in the Constitution of India. Preamble of the Indian Constitution promises to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation. Article 15 of the Constitution prohibits any kind of discrimination on grounds of caste, race, religion, gender or place of birth; Article 16 gives equality of opportunity in matter of public employment, Article 338 creates National commission for Scheduled Castes to safeguard their interests etc.

In the eyes of common-man, Caste a social Institution – General public in Indiastill considers as one of the fundamental social institution – a natural, inevitable unit of society. Family, which is a natural unit of an extended family; Extended family of Kula; Kula of a tribe (Vish); and a tribe of a Jana of Jati (Caste). In a way, all are fundamental social institutions. To them, Caste is a large extended family bonded by same language, customs, thinking and way of living and occupation. It is second only to the family in widening a person’s social radius and in getting importance in his/her private and occupational life.

A person’s relation with members of his caste is closer than with those, belonging to other castes. Caste values, beliefs, prejudices, injunctions as well as distortions of reality are the indivisible part of a person’s psyche and conscience. It makes one feel good and loved, when he lives up to the norms, and anxious and guilty, when he transgresses them. It still provides an individual with social security. To foreigners, Varna/caste system represent the ancient culture in its eternity.

Amendments and legislations to protect people from the rigidities of Caste System – Since Independence, the government has passed a number of amendments in the Constitution and legislations to remove the unreasonable practices developed into the system. Like untouchability is declared a crime. Bonded labour is abolished by law. Civil Rights Act, 1955, aims to eliminate injustice against weaker sections. Amendment to Prevention of Atrocities Act (SCT) 1989 provides for stern punishments for offenses committed against SCT by Upper Castes. Special Courts, under SCT Act, have been established for punishing officials, who are found guilty.

Caste now more liberal in social sphere – With the spread of literacy and growing awareness among masses, Castes system has become less restrictive in social arena. Castes no longer enjoy legal or religious sanctions. Expulsion from castes now means little. Earlier it meant complete social ostracism. Old style of authority and power exercised by caste-elders has already diminished except for a few castes in, rural areas especially in Haryana and Rajasthan. Restrictions or interactions between different castes arising due to considerations for purity and pollution are fading away from public life even from rural areas.

Traditional barriers on marriage, hereditary occupations and commonality are losing its importance. Slowly but steadily, many discriminatory practices and deformities developed in Caste system, while living under alien rule are diminishing. Caste system is now more liberal and less restrictive in social life of the people. Still, caste system is considered problematic. Why? What is now wrong with the caste system? Does fault lies somewhere else? Yes, problem lies in entry of caste into politics.

Entry of Caste System in Politics – Caste system started entering into politics during British rule, who followed the policy of ‘Divide’ the people and ‘Rule’ as long as possible. The seeds sown by colonial rulers flourished in full in Independent India.

Winding up

Hinduism and its Caste system has travelled a very long distance experiencing many ups and downs since then. It has been both defended and opposed over the course of Indian history and up-to the present day. Especially Caste-system has drawn the attention of politicians, intellectuals, activists or reformers from other faiths. It has been interpreted praised, distorted or criticized the system  in the manner, whatever suited to their purpose or according to vested interests of that particular era.  Many changes have taken place in the system as time passed on. Especially during Muslim rule many deformities and rigidities had developed into the system. And during British rule, it has been criticized vehemently. After Independence also there are many political parties and pressure groups all over India, who criticize it strongly. So much and so that there is a section of Indian society, which desires to completely wipe caste system out from Indian scene and create a casteless society.

There is a big difference between caste as a system and casteism, and dreaming of replacing caste based society into a casteless society is almost impossible in near future –

Caste as system – Caste is an organised social institution having many salient features mentioned above. This term is specifically used to refer the social structure of Hindu India. Broadly speaking, the fourfold division of society has been sanctioned in ancient scriptures and said to structure all social relations.

Caste-ism – Generally law follows social changes. But after the Independence, the political leadership in their hurry and enthusiasm, tried to foster social changes through law and paternalistic policies and Plans based on caste rather than on economic criteria, in order to solve the problem of age-old imbalances and cumulative disparities of power, wealth and culture. It led to politicization of Caste-system. There is a section of Indian society, which desires to completely wipe caste system out from Indian scene and create a casteless society.

Is creation of casteless society possible – It is a distant dream because –

• So far, the supporters of “caste-less society” have not been able to suggest a better alternative of caste system or thought of  support systems and norms needed to substitute caste-system into classless society. They do not even know, how to transform the caste-based Indian society into a classless society.
• Reluctance of common man – Common men, too, are not willing to experiment new systems. They are reluctant to replace or abandon caste-system – an institution of proven value on trial and error basis. They are not sure about the effectiveness of proposed new systems to be created by the proponents of caste-less society. Therefore, elimination of caste in social life still remains a distant dream.
• Majority of Hindus wish for rational reforms in the already existing system – Most of the Indians understand that electoral politics has given a life to casteism. That is why they wish to make improvements in the tried and tested old system by removing deformities developed into it with time. A change is good for the growth of a society. But changes must be based on constant interpretation of past experiences and opinions, present requirements and existing ground realities of the place and future prospects.

Politicization of Caste System – Though the entry of Caste and Community in politics began during British rule, under their policy to ‘Divide’ the people and ‘Rule’ as long as possible. But the seeds sown by colonial rulers flourished in full in Independent India. How?

• Ossification of caste-system – ‘Caste’ has become a bye-word for Indian politicians. Narrow loyalties of caste and religion are encouraged in political arena. Also with the spread of education and awareness, rising aspirations of people and demands of different social groups has created added problem.
•  Caste as easiest and powerful weapon in the hands of politicians – For almost all  Political leaders, caste is the easiest and most powerful tool to sway public opinion emotionally and to create a large vote bank for themselves. It may be called ossification of caste-system fallen into the hands of power brokers and vote guzzlers.
• Emergence of Political identities – For political and governance purposes, the government has divided Indian population in most insensitive manner into  following unbridgeable groups – Upper castes, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, Other Backward Class and Minorities. Sectional interests are being promoted on caste or communal basis shamelessly.
• Sub-castes and Sub-sub-castes joined hands to increase their numerical strength – Such an official division of castes has grouped together and increased the numerical strength of lower strata of Hindu society. There emerged many powerful and assertive pressure groups amongst so called Scheduled castes and Backward Class to pursue their sectional interests.
• Beneficiary castes stick to their caste identity – So-called lower-castes are  more tenacious about their caste-identity than the higher. So that they can continue their preferential status in matter of education, jobs and other facilities offered by the government from time to time.
• Caste Hindus side-lined – The voice of upright and honest citizens, irrespective of their caste or community, is being continuously throttled mercilessly. In present day vote-bank politics based on game of numbers, it is very easy now for the pursuers of political power to side-line them.
• Casteism giving rise to Sub-cultures – The combination of casteism and communalism has generated sub-cultures like caste-ism, favouritism, and lure for easy money, nepotism, parochialism, communalism, regionalism etc. Bigoted sentiments and irresponsible comments are spreading in-discipline and agitation in the society.
• Increased inter-caste and intra-caste rivalry – Inter-caste and intra-caste, inter-community and intra-community and inter-tribal and intra-tribal rivalries have increased in order to get more space caste-wise in the corridors of power.

Paternalistic policies of Government – Entry of caste in politics started with the electoral politics and with successive governments initiating some of its economic policies and practices, based on caste rather than on economic criteria. The argument, that these policies are just to uplift of submerged sections of society has led to casteism. The paternalistic policies for bringing the submerged sections of the society into mainstream and creating a casteless society has not yielded the desired results, because-

• These policies are devised by self-proclaimed leaders and mostly administered by bureaucrats, who follow the dictates of leaders of the political party in power.
• Plans are not rooted in local priorities or skills.
• Selection of the beneficiaries’ castes   is biased, It often depends on patronage networks of those, who have money or political power.
• So far, it has mostly benefitted the rural elite or creamy layer of the beneficiary castes.

Unfortunately, instead creating a better future, paternalistic policies of government have generated many complications. General public do understand that it is not because of caste system, but because of circumstances that has pushed millions away from the mainstream. Suffering of lower strata of society is mainly because of centuries old enslavement, suppression or ostracism. But  Deteriorated condition of most of such individuals, not of the whole caste has stopped growth of their personality and made them dependent on powerful lobby of society for their livelihood.

Humanitarian obligation to empower the submerged sections of society – No doubt, it is a humanitarian obligation of any civilized society to uplift and empower its submerged sections. Generally law follows social changes. But after the Independence,  Political leadership of India, in their hurry and enthusiasm to end age-old imbalances and cumulative disparities of power, wealth and culture, have tried to foster social changes through law.  Their aim was to create a casteless secular society. But, in the process knowingly or unknowingly, they have encouraged Caste-ism and communalism.

Recently, many reformers and religious/spiritual institutions are focusing their attention on community development. Many self-help groups (NGOs) have emerged all-over India. They bypass the government mechanisms and go straight communities. Wherever and whenever harnessed properly, efforts of such self-help groups have yielded rich dividends. For example the Parsi and Christian communities, institutions run by Veerashaivya Mutts of Karnataka, Ramakrishan Mission, Radhaswami Satsang, Satya Sai Baba, Sadhu Vasvani and many others are practising community based approach for the development of humanity. They provide far better municipal, civic, educational, and medical services than the government.

Conclusion

• Both Hinduism and its caste system have not become weak or obsolete in social arena even today. Many  ideological attacks have been launched on Hinduism and its caste system from time to time.  But so far, both have not only survived   the vicissitudes of time and saved itself from erosion from within or assault from outside, but have become stronger every time.  Still, both these institutions give present Indian society a distinguished identity and a solid social structure with a system of thought, a way of life, and sense of direction.,
• The roots of Hinduism and  its ‘Varna/jati-Pratha’, now known as caste system, are so deep that it is virtually impossible to think of India without Hinduism and its caste system. Caste-system is inseparably related to Hinduism by traditional customs, values and systems. Hinduism and caste system is going strong in India.
• Caste system associated with Hinduism has acted as a major force, through which Hindus retained their cultural identity, while living under an alien political order, whether it was Mughal, Portuguese or British.  It was the major force for the failure of Islam, Christianity and other religions to make headway in India even after mass conversion.
• It is not the malice of castes-Hindus, but the circumstances, that have pushed individuals from lower strata of society away from the mainstream. Suffering from centuries old enslavement, suppression and ostracism deteriorated severely the condition of lower strata of society, stopped growth of their personality and made them dependent on others for their livelihood.
• In-spite of all the accelerated changes in the society due to modernization, technological advancement, Westernization and Globalization of Indian society and the tough times it faced so far, Hinduism and its caste system have  survived and saved itself.  Whenever, it was on decline, it not only re-emerged, but re-emerged with greater force.
• It is a humanitarian obligation of any civilized society to uplift and empower the submerged sections of society. Generally law follows social changes. But in India, after the Independence, in order to the political leadership in their hurry and enthusiasm, tried to bring social changes through law. 

At present, the whole atmosphere is in a state of turmoil. Economy of the nation is in a critical condition. Technology has advanced to such an extent, that phones are wireless; cooking is fire-less; cars are key-less; food is fat-less; tyres are tubeless; and tools are cordless. But along with it, main organs of the Government  Political institutions are clueless and almost paralyzed because of corruption; leaders are shameless; masses are helpless; youth are jobless; relations are meaningless; feelings are heartless; education is valueless; attitude is careless, and children are manner-less. Modernity has ignited the desire for position, name and possession. . People are gradually losing faith in traditional values and systems. Even institution like family has lost its sheen. It is quite a tough job for India to cope with the new challenges. Traditional living has been like an anchor, keeping the boat in safe harbour. Now that the anchor has gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.

People like C. Rajagopalachari think that “If there is honesty in India today, any hospitality, any charity…. any aversion to evil, any love to be good, it is due to whatever remains of the old faith and the old culture”.

At present, when people are getting away from their roots, Hinduism can make their feet firmly grounded on earth and  instil right values in them. Its values and traditions give to the people, a purpose to live for and ideals to be achieved. Only after raising oneself from ignorance, a person could be able to understand the greatness of the Indian value system. Like a jeweller, one could spot out gems from among worthless pebbles.  A knowledgeable person could pick up knowledge and leave the undesired obsolete elements developed in it with passage of time. 

Modern India is desperate to pick up the lost threads of its true culture, and beliefs. It has to create an atmosphere, where different identities can once again live together in harmony and people can say proudly “we belong to a nation known as India, Hindustan, and Bharat”.

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[i]            Basham, Wonder That Was India, p51-52.

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Reservations in Government services in India?

 “Authority without wisdom is like a heavy axe without an edge.” Anne Bradstreet

“Work is worship. There is no substitute for hard-work”

INTRODUCTION ­

Biggest experiment of Twentieth century – Policy of Reservations in government jobs is one of the biggest experiments in the history of Twentieth Century. It is a very sensitive issue. It was started to uplift the submerged sections of Indian society, to protect their rights and to overcome the cumulative disparities of power, wealth and culture existed among various sections of society. From its very nature, the policy is discriminatory and exclusive. It empowers state authorities to give preference to one or more groups in the society to exclusion of others and encroach on domain of right to ‘equality to all’. Of late, it has become a source of considerable controversy, as it also involves emotional feelings of people.

“Reservation in Government services” – Reservations in government services involves two contradictory principles – one, the principle of “Efficiency in administration” and the other the principle of “Social justice”. Reservation Policy aims at improving the lot of backward sections of society and empowering them for a better future. For a successful administration the keynote is efficiency, which means right people on right positions at right time.

An efficient administration can provide convenience to the public at large, and attain the developmental and welfare goals of the nation within time and cost parameters. It could secure maximum results with minimum labour and resources. However, Reservation policy suggests, as understood by Indian authorities, to appoint less- qualified persons on the crucial positions of power structure by relaxing the standards and fixing up a separate quota for each of its weaker sections.

Issues – The question arises, is it possible to find out a way, which can keep a balance between the two contradictory principles? Is it not desirable to make weaker sections strong and eligible first and then facilitate their entry into such services of the nation? How can a capable and confident team from amongst vast majority of backward people be prepared to shoulder responsibilities of administration judiciously?

What is Reservation Policy – Dictionary meaning of Reservations – According to the “New Webster Dictionary”, reservation means “Keeping aside something for some specific purpose.” In the Indian context, Reservation Policy refers to a situation, wherein to uplift the submerged section of society, some jobs and other facilities are especially reserved in various institutions/organisations, so that they could be brought back into the national mainstream.

Social structure of Indian society – Before discussing the views of supporters and critics of Reservation Policy, It is necessary to know something about Social Structure of India. In ancient India, Hindu society was classified in four functional groups known as “Varna” –

1. Brahmins to preach,
2. Kshtriyas to rule and defend the community,
3. Vaishyas to carry on the business and
4. Shudras to do the menial jobs for the society as a whole.

During Ancient period, though the concept of Nation-State was non-existent, but Hindu philosophy, its values, systems and culture had bound the people of this peninsula from one end to the other. The systems worked well. So much and so, that ancient India was known as ‘Sone ki Chiriya’ ( A Bird of Gold). However, the system Developed deformity with passage of time.

• In ancient India, numerous social groups came to India in waves at different points of time and desired to join the mainstream. All of them were assimilated into it without any conversion by giving each one a different caste name. It gave rise to the caste-system.
• Then Turks, Afghans and Mughals continuously invaded India. Earlier, they drained out the wealth of the nation to foreign lands. But afterwards, they conquered and made India their homeland. There had been alien rule in the country for centuries, first of Mughals rule and then of British.

Developed deformity with passage of time – As time passed, there developed many distortions. The society got divided into innumerable castes and sub-castes within each of four Varnas. Disparity and inequality grew amongst them with the passage of time.

Pathetic condition of Shudras and untouchables – By the beginning of twentieth century, the condition of Shudras/untouchables and women became quite pathetic  due to ignorance, superstitions, illiteracy and they were in general economically deprived. Worst of all was the position of women. They had no freedom. There were prejudices/discrimination against them in every sphere of life, from day-to-day living to work to social status.

Social Reformative movements of nineteenth and twentieth centuries – From time to time, Intelligentsia, nationalist leaders and social reformers were deeply concerned about the inequality and injustice prevalent in the society against lower castes and women of the society.  Reformative movements during the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century were seriously concerned about the sufferings of women and untouchables. They  made efforts to uplift their position and eliminate all forms of exploitation, oppression, discrimination and evil practices prevalent in the society.

It was also impressed upon the masses that “Abhava” (Scarcity), “Agyan” (Ignorance), “Anyaya” (Injustice), and “Alasya” (Laziness) were the sources of all the evils. To get over these shortcomings, they organized many awareness programs for the masses. Intelligentsia, nationalist leaders and social reformers made people alert and aware of their rights. They advised masses no more to accept from now onwards, misery, ignorance and economic deprivation, which they earlier accepted as their lot,

Desire to establish a new economic order – The public desired to go forward quickly and to establish a new economic order, in which common man and weaker sections of society could have better deal. Masses desired to get benefited from the resources of the nation. It forced the national governments to take upon themselves the responsibility of protecting and nurturing them in such a manner that they got enough opportunities to grow, to their fullest stature. Millions of people started demanding with persisting insistence better facilities in life – they demanded protection from five major evils of an underdeveloped or developing society – want, disease, ignorance, squalor and idleness.

Start of Quota system by British Government to improve the status of weaker sections – In the later half of the Nineteenth century, British government in India started the practice of ‘Quota system’ in India. It opened the doors of education for all.  To  help the weaker sections of the society, it bestowed upon them some special concessions and preferences through the policy of fixing up Quotas (former form of ‘Reservation policy’) first in education and then in jobs for different communities. .

Scene after World-War II – After World War II, “Laissez-faire” theory of government’s function gave way to the concepts of “Welfare State”, and “Development Administration”. These concepts aimed at bringing about “Social, political and economic justice” and “Betterment to the lot of the submerged sections of the society” by building up a rapidly expanding and technologically progressive economy, in which the downtrodden could have a better deal.

With the general acceptance of the concepts all-over the world, the national governments gradually assumed the responsibility of welfare of all its citizens from “Womb to tomb”. Specific concessions, protections and assistance were given to the weaker sections of society in one form or the other all-over the world. In India, one of such protection measures adopted has been “Reservation Policy”.

Much before Dr. Ambedkar demanded Reservations for untouchables in Government jobs and separate electorate for them (a demand conceded by the British Governments in 1932), many Provincial Governments, especially those in the South, had already fixed up quotas on the basis of castes and communities. They were giving preferences to certain castes and communities in educational institutions and government jobs.

Interestingly enough the Government of India Act, 1935, did not contain any specific provision for reservation. It, however, contained a few Sections (Section 275 and 298) which indirectly dealt with the subject through “Negative Protection” to those suffering from disability by reasons of race, religion, place of birth, descent, colour or any of them. The reservations in the Central services started since 1943, whereas the ST’s became eligible for reservations since 1950.

Scene after Independence

 There has been a perplexing diversity in geography, culture, caste, religion and language in India. Along with it, there has been a great disparity between different sections of society – socially and economically. The attention of national leaders was drawn towards illiteracy, ignorance, superstitions, and taboos on food, drink and marriages, social segregation, lack of communication, living in inaccessible areas, unhealthy loyalties, continuing discrimination and lack of security,­ economic, social and legal.

Primary Goals  according   – After independence, India, being a democratic country pursued the principles of ‘Welfare State’ and ‘Social Justice’ after the Independence. The primary goals of the government for the independent India were:

• To build a self-reliant nation through optimal utilization of its resources.
• To establish an egalitarian and tolerant society based on the principles of justice, social economic and political,
• To ensure to everyone equality of status and opportunity and
• To give underprivileged a fair start

Views of Constituent Assembly members – Different views were exchanged during constituent Assembly debates –

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Chairman of Drafting Committee of Indian Constitution and founder of reservation policy in India, was of the opinion that social structure of India and its ‘Principle of Varna’ was responsible for the pathetic condition of ‘Avarna Hindus’, and keeping them far away from the mainstream and progressive influences. Varna system has divided the whole society of India into – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas (Savarna Hindus) and Shudras (Avarna Hindus). Saverna Hindus were in privileged position. But the condition of Avarna Hindu castes, low Castes, Primitive Tribes, Untouchables and Criminals was pathetic. Avarna Hindus were given neither fair start nor equal opportunity nor square deal. Bringing these submerged sections of society into main stream needed Government’s intervention and initiate the practice of reservation as a government policy.

According to Ambedkar, lower castes did not have the courage to demand reasonable wages for their labour. They did not hold property (Land or cash) – they were born to work or starve. They were there only to wait, serve and submit. They were there to do or die.

• Giani Gurumukh Singh Musafir – Giani Gurumukh Singh Musafir, a member of the Constituent Assembly thought that India had made the Harijans live in very poor condition for hundreds of years. He, therefore, advocated during the Constituent Assembly Debates on November 29, 1947: “Now when India has become free, it becomes the first and foremost duty of Central and Provincial Governments and of every Indian to see that these crores of downtrodden men are uplifted.”…. “They should be provided water, housing and education.”…. “So long as these depressed classes have this idea amongst themselves that they belong to this particular sect, so long as they think that they have this label affixed to them, it is difficult for them to progress. The very names give them this complex that he belongs to a depressed class.”
• Shri Subhash Lal Saxena – Shri Subhash Lal Saxena, another member of the Constituent Assembly, said during the Constituent Assembly Debate on same day as Giani Gurumukh Singh Musafir i.e. November 27, 1947: “If capable Harijans are available, they should be recruited to superior posts. Besides the ordinary posts, the Harijan should be given all such jobs for which they are eligible. Harijans should be recruited in the Police. They should be given the post of Patwaries, School masters and Head masters etc. These posts would remove the inferiority complex, which is prevailing among them.
• Many constituent Assembly members apprehended the fall of efficiency and administrative standard. Pt Hriday Narayan Kunjru feared, “The regulations, made in this regard, may be unnecessarily wide or they may even be changed in such a way, from time to time, as to enable the executive to exercise a considerable amount of undesirable patronage.”  

Constitution on Reservation – Seeing the pathetic condition of masses, Constitution-framers thought, if independent India made the weak to stand and compete with the strong on equal footing, it would be throwing the dice in favour of the strong. Therefore, the Constitution authorizes Central and State governments to take special care of millions of under-fed, under-read and under-clothed people of free India and make special provisions for their sustainable development. Therefore,  Article 15(4) primarily provides for educational opportunities and Article 16 (4) to job opportunities. Directive principles, through Articles 38, 39, 41, 43, 45, 46 etc. gave some guidelines to the future Government. It  allowed  the government to make provisions for reservations for ten years after the implementation of the Constitution and empowered the Parliament to extend the period, if required. The aim was to include and absorb lower strata of society into the mainstream of the nation.

While the Constitution framers were dealing with the topic, special provisions relating to certain classes specifically mentions that as far as the government services are concerned “The claims of the members of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes shall be taken into consideration, consistent with the maintenance of efficiency of Administration, in the making of the appointments to services and to posts in connection with the affairs of the Union or of a State”.

Article. 17 of Constitution of India abolished “Untouchability” and made its practice a cognizable offence the most heinous aspect of the Indian society by. Article 15 guarantees equality of opportunity for all citizens irrespective of religion, race, caste, descent, place of birth or any other reason.

Areas, in which Reserved category people get benefits – Reservation Policy benefits reserved category people (SCs, STs and OBCs) in the following areas –

• Political institutions consisting of the elected representatives of the people.
• Admission in educational institutions.
• Reservations in jobs.
• Reservations in promotions.

In addition to it, candidates, belonging to reserve quota, if succeed to get jobs on their merit, their names are included in General category list, not in the reserved category/quota list. That means the number could even be more than mentioned above in a year. Besides if the candidates with required qualifications are not found in a particular year, the unfilled vacancies are carried over and added in the next years. These can not be filled with other qualified persons.

Measures taken to uplift submerged sections – Under Article 340 of the Constitution, a Commission is to be appointed by the President to investigate the condition of socially and educationally backward citizens, the difficulties under which they labour, make recommendations for removal of those difficulties and other ameliorative measures needed to be taken.

In 1978, a Commission for SC/ST was setup within the Ministry of Horne Affairs to monitor the comprehensive program and to ensure their all- round development. The financial allocations for the welfare of downtrodden have been increased tremendously after independence. The sincere effort towards their development began with Five Year Plans, which aimed at reducing the imbalances and disparities.

The First Five Year Plan identified the problem areas needed to be tackled viz absence of communication, paucity of drinking water, supply and irrigation, education and health facilities and universal poverty etc. Accordingly, many Integrated Development Plans and Sub–Plans were initiated besides reservations.

Reservations for OBC’s – In 1955, Kaka Kalelkar Commission on Backward Classes and in 1980, MandaI Commission, were appointed to suggest ways to improve the condition of poor people in India. On August, 1990, V.P. Singh’s Government accepted to implement, partially, the suggestions made by MandaI Commission viz. reserving 27% jobs for “Other Backward Castes” in all Central Government institutions or institutions aided by the Central Government. It received a great deal of resistance from the people and litigation in Supreme Court. Since 1992 27% seats in jobs are reserved for OBC’s.

Started as a temporary measure – Reservation was accepted by the constitution framers as a temporary measure. Article 330 provides for reservation in Legislature for ten years, unless at the end of this period the reservation is continued by an amendment of the Constitution. However, the Constitution was amended again and again in 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 to extend this period for another ten years at each instance. Now it has become a never-ending program. And the list of beneficiaries groups has kept on increasing. All state Governments have their own plans for job-reservations in their respective states and extending the list of beneficiary castes. At provincial level, different state-governments have fixed up their own quotas for different castes and communities.

Constitution on De-reservation – Before Independence, there was a provision of reservation in government services for Anglo-Indians. Article 336 of the Constitution clearly says that for the first two years after its start, reservations (in favour of the Anglo-Indians – a minority community) should continue on the basis as before; then during every succeeding period of two years, this reservation is to be progressively reduced by at-least ten percent, so that by the end of ten years all such reservation might cease.

The process of de-reservation could be started now for other sections of society, 70 years after the independence  in similar way, without much reactions. Reservations  could be progressively reduced by at-least ten percent after every few years, so that after a reasonable time, all such reservation could be ceased and people could be confident enough to move forward without chrutches.

As Giani Gurumukh Singh Musafir had suggested during the Constituent Assembly Debates on November 29, 1947: “Now when India has become free, it becomes the first and foremost duty of Central and Provincial Governments and of every Indian to see that these crores of downtrodden men ….  bn  should be provided water, housing and education.”…. “So long as these depressed classes have this idea amongst themselves that they belong to this particular sect, so long as they think that they have this label affixed to them, it is difficult for them to progress. The very names give them this complex that he belongs to a depressed class.”

Arguments of the Supporters Of Reservation policy – Policy of reservation has been hailed by it supporters as a “Historic step” the advocates of reservation. To them policy of reservation has been adopted to break the shackles of caste and to improve the lot of the poor masses. Arguments in favour reservation policy –

• • Lower castes under-represented in power echelons – Backward castes constitute about 80% of India’s total population (15% Scheduled Caste, 8% Scheduled Tribes and 52% Other Backward classes), but their representation in echelons of power including the senior in Government of India is a paltry 4.69%. Therefore, supporters of reservation policy demand that employment in government services should be on pro-rata basis.

• • ‘Due share’ to lower strata in power echelons – Founder of Bahujan Samaj Party, Kanshi Ram said, “The reservation for SC/ST began with only 2% in 1935. Now it is 22.5%. Gradually all reservations would be according to proportion of different castes in the population. My aim is to give reservation (to the upper caste minorities), not to demand it. V.P. Singh has made my job easier.” … Ex Prime Minister, V.P. Singh, Prime Minister from Janata Dal, while implementing the MandaI Commission recommendations in August, 1990 said in his independence-day speech, “We want to effectively give to the depressed, downtrodden and backward people their share in the power structure and in decision-making to run country and improve things.”

• • Suppression of downtrodden for centuries – Lower castes had been treated unequally in the past, now they should be given a more than equal status to make empower them. Competition could be just and valid only among equals. Since upper castes had suppressed lower castes on basis of their birth, present generation has to correct age-old imbalances and make reparations by giving downtrodden advantage through reservations. It is a noble and just cause in return for centuries of oppression.
  • Little dilution of meritocracy does not matter – Forward castes are better educated and settled because of the environment, in which they are brought up. But deprived castes, in absence of proper environment and economic constraints are unable to compete on equal terms with upper castes for jobs in the government, public or private sectors. Besides educational capabilities and economic status, socio-political dominance of upper caste is a powerful factor influencing selection process. Witnessing all these aspects social justice demands that jobs should be shared with backward even at cost of little dilution of meritocracy.

• • Foundations of Reservations social, not economic – “All foundations for government’s reservation policy were social, not economic” says Ram Vilas Paswan “Each caste is standing with one foot on the forehead of the one below it in the social hierarchy…” Shri Ram Avdhesh Singh, a M.P. of Lok Dal says, “Even the rich backwards are not given the social status, which poor forwards enjoy. That is why we need representation in the government on caste basis, where wealth and respect go hand in hand. These reservations are not for the economic good, but to link backwards with the State.” (India Today, September 30, 1990) Therefore supporters of Reservation Policy are against the idea of economic criteria. V.P and his associates said that it was introduced in Tamil Nadu in the past, but did not worked there (Times of India news item on September 4, 1990).

• • Whitewash a bitter historical reality – Swami Agnivesh of Bandhua Mukti Morcha had said, “We have created our fractures and schisms – it was not the Mughals, it was not the British, it was the Vedas that consolidated the casteism in Indian culture. We can describe the reservation policy today as palliatives, an attempt to whitewash a bitter historical reality, sitting on a handful of armchair sociologists and pretending the rest of backward India doesn’t exist. That we need is radical social change.”

• • Reservation Policy has empowered backwards as a composite pressure group – “Reservations, on the basis of caste, give the backwards an identity as a composite pressure group. This is a concrete achievement, which will help them to unite and fight for equality. Besides, caste is still a dominant factor in Indian social-structure; its existence should be accepted for recognising the under-privileged groups.” (News item in Times of India, September 15, 1990)

• • Merit not a prerogative of upper castes only – Merit is not found in upper castes only. There are many meritorious and talented boys and girls amongst the SC/ST/OBC. They only need proper atmosphere and opportunities for education and employment in order to shine to their full capacity. In old Madras Presidency, there were 100% reservation/job quotas, both for “Forward” and Backward” castes. Today about 68% seats are reserved for SC/ST/OBC in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and they are far ahead of other provinces in matter of prosperity and good governance, where there is upper caste domination in administration.

• • Norm of ‘pull’ and ‘push’ – Ram Vilas Paswan, ex-minister says, “There is no such thing as merit in India today, there is only “pull” and “Influence”…. “Merit” is only a term used for the purpose of disruption by agitators.” Shri Paswan asks why forward class does not look towards merit in candidates admitted in institutions of higher learning because of capitation fee or selected for influential posts because of their family background.

• ‘Bearer best knows where shoe pinches’ – V.P. Singh told the nation that society would be served best by filling the civil services by downtrodden as they were the bearers who knew where the shoe pinched. They had the qualities of heart, which the administration of the country needed more than the quality of head. They are committed to the uplift of their brethren. Syed Shabuddin of the “Insaf party” had said, “In a democracy every social group is entitled to share the fruits of development and keep a hand on the levers of power…. Both intra and inter group disparities must be reduced by Legislative policies. If the backward classes come into administrative posts, they may be able to increase efficiency, as they will be having grass-root knowledge of actual problems.” (News item in the Times of India, September 15, 1990)

In short, supporters of reservation consider it necessary to empower the downtrodden, to reduce economic inequalities, to give them social respectability, to reduce imbalances created due to upper class influence and to break the psychological barrier, to give downtrodden their due share in power structure.

Arguments of Anti-reservationists – Anti-reservationists doubt the efficacy of Reservation Policy. Reservation has been a source of turmoil in society many a time. They have shown their resentment every-time Parliament had extended the period for reservations. In seventies and eighties, the agitation against reservation policy took a major turn by taking a shape of national movement affecting many parts of the country. The agitation against reservation sparked violently in Gujarat in 1983 and spread to other places when a meritorious physically handicapped student of upper caste was denied admission in MD course and the quota student with much less marks was admitted. Such cases definitely arouse public sentiments and they criticise the government for following the policy blindly. Somehow the authorities were able to suppress it. But scars were left. They say –

• • Contrary to principles of equality – Reservations are contrary to principles of equality, fraternity and social justice. There is something fundamentally wrong with Reservation Policy. In the name of social justice, fundamental rights of many deserving people are curtailed or negated. It benefits and increases the number of those, who are desirous to find an easier way-out.

• • Genesis of Reservation Policy in “Divide and Rule” dictum – Reservations were first introduced by the British rulers to “Divide” the Indian population and “rule” the nation as long as possible. The British government divided Indians on the basis of caste and community. British rulers, who got alarmed about the increasingly power and influence of Brahmins, purposely propagated myth of tyranny of the “Forward Castes”, especially of Brahmins over rest of the society. Therefore, British rulers pinpointed Brahmins as oppressors and tyrants, who wilfully kept others down. They encouraged anti-Brahmin formations in the South. They started the practice of fixing-up quotas in various educational-institutions and government jobs on one side and separate electorate for religious groups on the other. Later on, Reservations started in other parts of the country as well for backward communities.

• • Source of Vote-bank politics – Now many politicians and their parties advocate to fix a quota for more castes,  to increase the percentage of quota and extend its time-frame for ever in order to create vote banks. Like Britishers, politicians and supporters of pro-reservation want to divide the nation, on the basis of caste, community or gender. They want to grab and hold political power as long as possible. Already, there is a perplexing diversity in India along geography, culture, caste, religion and language lines. They are spreading venom in the heart of each identity against other. If not checked on time, communalism and casteism are bound to destroy the unity of the nation and narrow down the aspiration of people.

• • Administration and policy-making for Sustainable Development requires services of most talented – The task of administration is one of the most difficult. It is so complex that it requires services of most talented, sincere, hardworking and honest people. A preference to a person with inferior talent over a person with superior talent is not only unjust but against national interests. Reservations in employment contemplates putting those on responsible positions in the government, “Who are not qualified for the job” – (Arun Shourie). And in the process, power passes from meritocracy to mediocracy (Nani Palkiwala). It also means that sub-standard services would be rendered to the general public.

• • Common-men suffer more – The policy of reservation affects adversely the efficiency of administration as a whole. Deteriorating standards of working in government institutions and poor law and order situation have already done irreparable damage to the development of SC/ST and OBC communities and made their lives miserable. The larger objective of eradicating the poverty and bringing the downtrodden in the main-stream could never be achieved by laying stress on quantity rather than quality and lowering the standards of education or governance. Does reserving a very few places for SC, ST & OBC satisfy the basic needs of millions of underfed, under-clothed and under-read people of India

• • Contributions of upper class – Kaka Kalelkar had said in, ‘Note of Dissent of First Backward caste Commission “It would be well, if representatives of the Backward-classes remembered that whatever good they find in the Constitution and the liberal policy of the Government, is the result of the awakened conscience of the upper classes themselves. Whatever Government is doing by way of atonement is readily accepted and acclaimed by the nation as a whole. The upper classes have contributed their share in formulating the policies of the Government. Removal of untouchability, establishment of equality and social justice, special consideration for backward classes, all these elements found place in the Constitution without a single voice of dissent from the upper classes.” Upper castes are still contributing their share through taxes (the money collected from taxes is supposed to be spent on developmental plans.) Somewhere, they are supporting, elsewhere actively participating in formulating developmental policies of the government.

• • Quantity of reservation quota – So long as “only a few places” were kept aside for those severely disadvantaged – Harijans and Girijans, the people tolerated the policy as functioning of institutions did not stand much risk of being vitiated and consideration of caste and community were placed under control. But, when V.P. Singh announced to implement 27% for reservation in jobs for OBCs, in addition to 22.5% reservation for SC/STs in government jobs, heart burning and stir against Reservation Policy passed all the limits. The whole nation was in for caste wars.

• • Reservation policy ignores merit – Reservation policy as it ignores merit. In 1947, when the Constitution framers were dealing with the reservation policy, they showed clearly their concern for efficiency. Art. 335 directs that ‘reservations for SC/ST should be consistent with the maintenance of efficiency of administration.’ Today, when economy is in shambles, inflation has touched 13%, coffers are empty, and common man is suffering due to inefficiency and mal-functioning of the government, the nation can not afford to ignore merit and efficiency. In Private Sector, survival and prosperity depends on merit. It picks up the best talent available in the country from the educational institutions itself by conducting “Campus interviews” and does not allow sub­standard working. That is why it is attracting the talents of the nation and is prospering.

• • Discourages development of skills – Reservation has discouraged development of skills, resources and attitudes in SC/STs needed to succeed without the crutches of reservation and has encouraged backwardness, inefficiency and lack of competitive merit amongst the castes enjoying reservation.

• • Making people lazy and increases malpractices – People of lower castes have taken these concessions for granted and expect it to last for ever. It has made even competent persons amongst them lazy and complacent. Guarantee of share in power structure without much effort develops an attitude never value the dignity of labour and work hard. The reservation policy is adding fuel to this attitude. Obtaining false certification about caste is increasing in order to get the advantage of the limited spoils. It has raised the expectation of others as well.

• • Short time measure – In many provinces, scheduled castes were enjoying the benefit of reservation in proportion to their population since 1935. Constitution had provided for state patronage to SC/ST for ten years i.e. till 1960, to SCs, because they were far away from the mainstream on account of “Untouchability” and other constraints, and STs because of “Social isolation due geographical reasons”. After the end of this period, the concession could be  continued by an amendment of the Constitution, which was not very likely. It was hoped that underprivileged would be at least in a position to stand on their feet by 1960.

• • Times have already changed – Vote-bank politics has changed everything since then. Successive governments have ignored the sweeping changes that have occurred throughout the country over the last 70 years. Through various measures, including Reservation Policy, people of all castes have progressed. Anti Brahmin movements in former Estates of Madras and Bombay had effectively eliminated Brahmins as a dominant political force. Lower strata of society had organized themselves, consolidated their economic and acquired political power. Through reservations they have succeeded in occupying position of power.

• • Shift of power in favour of Backwards – Political power has already shifted in favour of backwards, almost completely in the South and in massive strides in Bihar and UP, where they constitute nearly 40% of the Legislative strength. At State and local levels, especially in more populous rural areas their influence is continuously growing. Untouchables have made concerted efforts to mobilize themselves and to secure their upward mobility as may be seen in the case of Izhavas of Kerala, Mehars of Maharashtra, Chamars of UP, Meenas of Rajasthan, etc. Radical movement such as that launched by the militants Dalit Panther in Maharashtra have made the emerging strength of the lowest caste felt with increasing effectiveness.

• • Rigidity of caste wearing out – Rigidity of caste has been gradually wearing out. Introduction of railways, opening of hotels and restaurants, radio, TV and cinema houses have contributed to the relaxation of caste prejudices and rigidities. Besides education and training, land reforms, industrialisation etc have brought awareness amongst backward castes. The end of many practices, which created distances between different castes in the past, is a hopeful sign and guarantee for the future well being of every Indian citizen.

• • New lease of life to caste – Entry of caste into political arena through reservation policy has given a new lease of life to caste in the form of caste-ism. Caste-ism has not only held its ground but began to strengthen its hold in the politics at national as well as provinces levels. Politicians of Independent India are well-versed in making its increasing use in politics.

• • Time for gradual de-legitimization of caste – Yogendra Singh, Dean of Political Science in the Jawaharlal Nehru University says, “Forty years have seen enormous differentiation in class and caste division. Caste should not be the central element in dispensing social justice. In fact, there should be a process of gradual de-legitimization of caste by finding scientific methods for the exit of SCs and STs from the reserved quota.” (India Today, September 30, 1990)

• • ‘Past is past’ – Vasant Sathe of Congress (I) says “Reservation is no solution for a crime so many centuries old. Nor it is ethical to punish our present society for the sins of our fore fathers.” It is a law of jungle to hold responsible the present generation for the follies of its previous generations. According to Rule of law the present generation can not be punished for what their forefathers did.

• • Undermines ‘Principle of Equality’ – Anti-reservationists argue that there was a case to end the quota business in 1960 itself. Yet it has been allowed to continue till today. The Indian Constitution is committed to two different principles both of which relate to equality: ‘principle of equal opportunities’ and “principle of redress’. Now it is over due that ‘principle of equality’ be enforced in its true spirit without any favour. Since policy of reservation undermines the principle of equality, it should be gradually discontinued as had been done in the case of Anglo Indians in accordance with the Article 336 of the Constitution.

• • Inter and intra caste wars – Reservation policy does not consider all individuals equal. Instead caste becomes the basis to get this privilege. It leads to inter-caste rivalry. Anti-reservationists accuse the pro-preservationists for inciting the caste war by provoking public feelings. Brahmins and upper castes has been pinpointed as an enemy of downtrodden, who have always exploited the downtrodden mercilessly.

• • Distortion of historical facts – Political adventurers, dictators and fundamental fanatics have distorted the history in the past and used it as a ploy to serve their own selfish or partisan interests. It does not even matter to them, whether their own version of history is real or based on fantasy. When Hitler walked into Sudetanland, he claimed historical authority. When Mussolini attacked Ethopia in 30′s, he quoted history. When Zionists claimed Jeruselem, they tried to justify their act by citing history. When Saddam Hussain walked into Kuwait on August2, 1990, He staked his claim on the basis of raking up old history. Same thing had happened on August 15, 1990, when V.P. Singh announced 27% reservation for OBCs, it was hailed by his supporters as “A historic decision which will go a long way in giving the rightful share to socially and economically backward castes in the power structure of the country, of which they were denied under the pressure from the vested interests.”

• • Reasons of backwardness other than caste – At present, submerged section of society does not suffer so much due to discrimination on the basis of caste as for other reasons. Kaka Kalelkar, first Chairman of First Backward class Commission had said, ““If the backward communities have neglected education it is because they had no use for it (in the past). Now that they have discovered their mistakes, it is for them to make the necessary efforts for making the leeway…As far as the assistance in the matter of education for the backward classes, I am convinced that introduction of basic education in all the states with help the backward communities to cultivate self-confidence. They will also have a better chance of succeeding in life and have the advantage of mixing with other people.”

• • Glamorization of Backwardness –Earlier, backwardness was considered as stigma. People of lower castes attempted to improve mannerism in order to climb up in the ladder of social status. These days, many castes claim for a lower status and want to be included in the list of SC/ST, so that they may taste the fruits of reservation as well. No more any caste is ashamed of being called untouchable or backward. Reservations have created vested interests in the “Backwardness.” Now backwardness is a status symbol, because it eases the position, while one is in search of jobs. Therefore, more and more communities are clamouring for the “Backward class” tag. Those in power find it politically expedient to oblige them. The list of castes wishing for reservations has become very long. Witnessing all this it stands to logic that the beneficiary group should be kept under constant review, so that who have over the years reached a stage where they could survive with dignity without any crutches, could be delisted.

• • Creamy layer of lower castes at advantage – Benefits of Reservations are confined within the creamy layer of lower strata, while, it was supposed to benefit ‘poorest of the poor’. How can all the 80% downtrodden be accommodated in power echelons by reserving only 49.552% jobs out of 1% of total government jobs available in the country? Naturally, only few people are benefited, others are given only false assurances during the times of elections.

• • Economic criteria as a basis – Anti-reservationists argue that consideration of caste instead of economic backwardness is not just. Reservations, if it is necessary should be given on the basis of ‘economic criteria’ to all the poor regard less of their caste identity. There should also be an income ceiling for SC/ST and others with the entitlement of their children for reservations in job and admission to educational institutions. Then only really deserving people could be benefited.

• • Led to Brain drain – Reservation has shaken the confidence of the youth of so called forward class. About 50% reservations in government jobs have left many deserving and intelligent youths unemployed or underemployed. Some of them choose the path of crime or violence. Unemployment has been one of the reasons behind Punjab and Kashmir problems. Many intelligent and hard working youth are losing their interest, rapidly, in government jobs. They prefer to go abroad in search of greener pastures, where they get good return for their talents and hard-work. In addition, they get job satisfaction because of tension free atmosphere at work-place. Reservations have, thus, led to brain drain. It has already squeezed out many meritorious by leading the country to massive brain drain.

• • Cry for social-Justice? – The attempt to establish a socialistic government does not carry much weight. The USSR a super-power of pre-1990 days collapsed like a house of cards, despite having Socialistic government for last 70 years. With all its State control and public support, it could not provide expected relief to its masses. How could socialistic ideals provide relief to the masses in India, where there exists so much corruption and inefficiency in administration?

• • Feeling of alienation – Creation and perpetuation quotas in educational institutions and jobs has made backward classes alienated from the main stream. It is adversely affecting national solidarity. It is sowing the seeds of hatred among the people and put hindrances on the way of mutual help, mutual respect and mutual trust necessary for the development of the nation as a whole. Along with it, efficiency or excellence, probity, integrity of institutions and trust, which are required for overall well-being are adversely affected.

• Reservations in Government jobs need not be a political program – Issue of Reservation in government jobs should not be politicized, keeping an eye on electoral mathematics. It has been envisaged to uplift the submerged sections of society and make their future better. Governance is one of the most difficult and specialized tasks. Government employees are supposed to have sufficient professional knowledge and expertise in various disciplines – functional, technical, specialist as well as managerial and generalist – so that they could properly aid and advise the elected representatives of the people and dig for them the expert knowledge from the raw material, give it a shape with a sense of commitment. For attaining that expertise, they have to be equipped with knowledge in various educational institutions. Therefore, the government should be very careful while recruiting people in government jobs.

If politicians are so keen to give reservations to lower castes, a share in the power structure of the nation, why not quotas are fixed for members of different castes by law and elect turn by turn or by rotation – the President, the Prime Minister, the Vice President, Cabinet Ministers, Ambassadors, Governors, Chief minister of every state? In these positions, the representatives of the people are elected or selected and entrusted the power and make decisions for a fix period. If their performance is not satisfactory, at-least they can be removed or changed. But government jobs are permanent and government servants can not be removed easily till they retire after 32 or 35 years of service. Wrong person in wrong position could adversely affect the standard/functioning of the governance which should not be allowed.

Wanchoo Commission Report, 1968, and Railway Reforms Committee Report, 1983, on the working of Railways observed that reservations in jobs and promotions adversely affects the enthusiasm, incentive for hard work and devotion to duty and in-turn the efficiency and the morale of the civil servants. Sikri Commission on Railways, 1968, linked accidents with reservations. These three reports are just about one government department and that too when reservation is only 22.5% for SC/ST. What is going to happen, now when it is 50%? Who would be the ultimate sufferer. It is the innocent public only.

• Double standard – The government itself has exempted certain services and posts from reservation in order to maintain efficiency, discipline and loyalty to the nation intact such as all the Defence Services, Scientific and technical posts in the Department of Space, Atomic Energy, Electronics, posts of pilots and top technical persons in Air India and Indian Airlines, all scientific posts of Indian Institute of Science, Banglore, teaching posts in IITs and IIMs, private secretary to the PM and other Ministers, Planning Commission Members etc. (A Handbook on reservation for SC/ST compiled by Sharma and Purohit). It proves that the government maintains double standards.
• Reservations for women – If any class in India needs reservation on the grounds of social discrimination or under-representation in power echelons, it is only the women in India. How about reserving 50% seats for them in all educational institutions and government jobs? That would be their just share and will not divide the society along the caste lines either. If it cannot be done, then at least 50% of the reserved quota could always be kept aside for women of respective castes. Are the politicians prepared to make such provision for women too?

In short, Anti-reservationists think that there is something fundamentally wrong with the Reservation Policy. It has been criticized for creating many conflicting identities like – majority and minority, backward and forwards, urban and rural, north and south and man and woman etc. It is being extended again and again with an aim to create “Vote-bank” in the garb of helping the needy.

In the name of social justice, fundamental rights of many deserving people are being curtailed or negated. It is a farce in the name of social justice, a slap on the face of education and merit, a vote catching measure and misuse of power by political parties.

Views of prominent persons on Reservation Policy – The views of some prominent leaders on reservation, are as follows:

• • Shri V.P. Singh – In his independence-day speech on August 15th, 1990, Shri V.P. Singh, ex-Prime Minister of India announced, while accepting the recommendations of Mandal Commission: “Bureaucracy is an important organ of the power structure and it has a decisive role in the decision-making exercise. We want to effectively give to the depressed, downtrodden and backward people their share in the power structure and in decision making to run this country and improve things. “
  • Mahatma Gandhi – In his book titled “India of my dreams” Mahatma Gandhi wrote: “So far as the reservations in the government departments is concerned, I think, it will be fatal to a good government, if we introduce there the communal spirit for administration to be efficient, it must be always in the hands of the fittest. There should be certainly no favouritism.”… “Distribution of posts should never be according to the proportion of members of each community. “… “Those who aspire to occupy responsible posts in the government of the country can only do if they pass the required test.”

• • Pundit Jawahar Lal Nehru – In a letter dated June 27, 1961, addressed to Chief Ministers of various States, Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, Ex-Prime Minister of India wrote, “I have referred above to efficiency and to our getting out of the traditional rut. This necessitates our getting out of the old habit of reservations and particular privilege being given to this caste or that group. It is true that we are tied up with certain rules and conventions about helping the SC/STs. That deserve help, but even so I dislike any kind of reservation, more particularly in services. I react strongly against anything which leads to inefficiency and second rate standards. I want my country to be a first class country in everything. The moment we encourage the second rate, we are lost.” “This way, lies not only folly but disaster.”

• • Kaka Kalelkar – As Chairman of the Backward Class Commission, Kaka Kalelkar expressed his views on reservation in education (Backward Class Commission Report, 1956, Vol. I, page X). He wrote: “As far as the assistance in the matter of education for the backward classes, I am convinced that introduction of basic education in all the States will help the backward communities to cultivate self-confidence. They will also have a better chance of succeeding in open competition and having the special advantage of mixing with people and serving them, they will prove themselves better administrators and leaders of society.”                                       On page VIII of the same report, he has expressed his views on reservation in government services too, as under: “I am definitely against reservations in government services for any community for the simple reason that the services are not meant for the servants but they are meant for the service of the society as a whole. Administration must have the services of the best men available in the land and these may be found in all the communities. Reservation of posts for certain backward communities would be as strange as reservation of patients for a particular doctor. The patients are not meant to supply adequate or proportionate clientele to all the doctors what ever their qualifications.”

  • Sri B.D. Sharma – Shri Sharma, the Commissioner for SC/ST has pointed out in his 29th Report, tabled in Parliament on August 31st, 1990, as under: “The policy of reservation in government jobs has not improved the lot of the bulk of SC/ST in the country. In fact, in many cases, their condition has further deteriorated. “It is quite clear that even if the policy of positive discrimination were to succeed fully, it could benefit only a small section of these communities. On the other hand, if inequality continues to increase in our country or continues even at the present level, the maximum damage will” befall on the members of these communities themselves, because their condition is already the worst as in the case of the SC or because they are facing the most severe backlash of development as in the case of the S.T……” ” The policy of reservation is ironical, as it demands a share for the weaker section” in the gains of iniquitous system, which in the ultimate analysis cannot be anything, but the proceeds of exploitation of other poor belonging to the same group who remain at the bottom.”

  • Chowdhary Charan Singh – Chowdhary Charan Singh, the founder of Lok Dal and charismatic leader of Backward castes and class, wrote: “It must be conceded that reservation on the basis of caste is a vicious principle and creates many problems. More than reservation in recruitment, it is reservation in promotions that has led to great heart burning and great inefficiency in our services. Such reservation whether in favour of Scheduled or Backward castes, was, in my opinion beyond intentions of the founding fathers. Boys belonging to poor families, particularly those, where large section of our people are considered socially inferior for centuries past, are entitled to consideration rather than concessions at the hands of the government of independent India.”                                                                                                                      Chowdhary Charan Singh was also against extending reservation to SC/ST beyond 10 years “The intelligent and hard working youth are losing their interest, rapidly, in government jobs. They prefer to go abroad in search of greener pastures, where they get return for their talents and hard-work. In addition, they get job satisfaction because of tension free atmosphere at work-place. … “The Union Government, however, has for political reasons, been extending the period of reservations decades after decades. There should be bars on children of those who have benefited from reservation and those who are income tax payers, so that other less fortunates could be helped.” (A letter, February 12,1982 to Banarasi Dass, the then Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh)

• Ram Vilas paswan – The Dalit Sena president and Janata Party leader, Mr. Ram Vilas Paswan, in his speech at Benipatti, Madhubani, on December 12, 1987 demanded for amendment to the Constitution to end the prevalent reservation system for Harijans and other backward classes in the Government services and replacing it by right to work for every body…. Reservation system had failed to achieve its purpose and had created social tension in the country. Mr. paswan said that despite Constitutional provisions and related laws, the government at the Centre and State had failed to protect the interest of Harijans.                                                                                     Later on, Paswan became the champion of reservation policy. He advocated reservations in jobs and educational institutions on permanent basis. It should continue till the caste system persists in India. Since caste system can not be put to an end, therefore, there is no justification for finishing the reservation for the downtrodden.

Views of intelligentsia regarding reservations in government jobs –

• • Professor Andre BeteilIe – Professor Beteille said: “Once the uneven distribution of caste in public institutions comes to be perceived as a problem of distributive justice, institutional well-being takes the back seat.” “Job reservations in public institutions are required to protect the interest of SC/ST, backward classes and minorities – if this argument is believed to be right and acted upon then our institutions can not function as they ought to, their well-being will be irreparably damaged.” … “The best course would be to expand the pool of qualified candidates at the lower level but this would call for patience which no government in India has so far shown.” “A quicker course, whose effects would show immediately in official statistics, would be to alter the proportions directly, through reservation of jobs.” (6th T. T. Krishnamachari Memorial lecture on “Distributive Justice & Institutional well-being”, November 11, 1990, the Institute of Economic Growth)

• • Shri H.M. Seervai – Shri Seervai wrote: “Reservations affect five parties adversely:

     

    • • The State – to whose service persons are recruited by open competition in examinations held by independent Public Service Commissions.
    • • The public – As the very phrase “Public servant” shows.
    • • The persons – who are discriminated against, by reservations in favour of members of SC/ST.
    • • Members of SC/ST – In whose favour discrimination is being made by fixing reservation quota; and
    • The service – That is each service considered as a whole. (“Is an efficient public service irrelevant in India”, Indian Express, September, 1990)                                                               “A service which lacks spirit-de-corps, that is, consciousness of and pride in belonging to a particular service, lacks an element essential to an efficient an harmonious administration. The position further deteriorates in a service in which in matters of promotion, people with superior qualifications are subordinate to people with admittedly inferior qualifications.”
  • Nani A Palkiwala – Shri Palkiwala opined that Reservation policy suffers from five fatal flaws:
    • • The sub-standard replaces the standard, and the reins of power are to pass from meritocracy to mediocracy.
    • • It ignores the reality that there are no backward castes but backward individuals.
    • • Reservations in promotion are disastrous enough for the civil administration.
    • • It divides the country on caste lines and is against social harmony and social intermingling of various castes.
    • Equality is the very heart of free republic, the foundation stone of true republic, the source of inspiration, the criteria for its citizenship and the hope for its welfare. The bedrock of reservation is discrimination in-reverse: it is discrimination against merit and calibre. (“Unity and security of State at stake”, Indian Express, September 14, 1990)

• Arun Shourie – Arun Shourie, in an Article titled “This way lies not only folly but disaster” appearing in the Indian Express on August 22, 1990, writes: “A job should be something one has to work to get, something which one has to do one’s utmost to retain and advance in. It should not be, advancement in it must not be anyone’s by right”. But reservation definitely develops the ethos that the job, the promotion is mine by right and that too because of by my birth, not work. How can a modern society survive, let alone grow with this as its ethos?

An analysis of the issue

There are certain basic truths, which needs to be accepted and pay attention to, before taking policy-decisions. Such as:

Society as an organic body – Society behaves and develops like an organic body. Each organ does a particular function and coordinated working of all organs together keeps the whole body fit and alive. Like other organic bodies, each and every section of society is an indispensable part of the society, which needs equal attention and proper care for the balanced growth of the society as a whole.

Just like in an organic body, weaker parts need special care, but not at the cost of others. So is in the society. Each and every section of the society needs to be assigned a specific function. Each one should perform its respective job. Society needs the services of all sections of the society. The work of any section is neither inferior nor superior to other. Each and every section of society needs to be aware of its indispensability to the whole. A society can move and prosper to its fullest, when each and every section of society does its functions well and lives in harmony; and when there is mutual help, respect and trust amongst the various sections of the society.

Society as an organisation – For an efficient and smooth functioning, like an organization, society also needs –
•Division of labour – Nobody can do all the work by himself. Division of different functions required in a society is the first requisite.
•Grouping of activities – All functions and activities should be so grouped as to avoid confusion. Activities of similar nature or having same objectives are grouped under one section.
•Structure – An organization needs a structure with well defined functions. The structure must be simple and easy to understand. It should also ensure continuous growth and, therefore, should not be rigid.
•Balance of activities – Proper weight-age to different activities, in proportion to their contribution to organization as a whole, is necessary. No activity should either be over-valued or under-valued.
•Team spirit – Relationship between various groups within an organization should be based on the principle of “mutual help, mutual respect and mutual trust”. It facilitates better coordination of diverse activities performed by different sections. Smooth relations amongst its constituent’s leads to optimal utilisation of resources and to satisfaction of all its constituent members.
•Specialisation – Concentration of a section on the performance of a single task, leads to greater efficiency and more specialisation. Functions need to be assigned on the basis qualifications, skills, attitude and aptitude of its employees.
•Creative thinking – A good organisation encourages initiative and creative thinking.
•Satisfaction – Organization must be able to satisfy the biological as well as psychological needs of its employees as an individual as well as a group.
•Adoption of new technologies and development – An organization helps adopts new improved means of doing things, permits prompt adoption and optimum use of technological advancements. It must avoid nepotism, favouritism and must give an upper hand to merit and talent.

Indian society contains all the essentials of a good organisation.

Truth about “Varna-system” – “Varna system” along with its castes and sub­-castes is not as bad as has been portrayed earlier by British rulers, now by some leaders and the pro­-reservationists. It is based on principles ‘mutual respect, trust and tolerance for each other’, ‘There is enough for everybody’s need, but not enough for anyone’s greed’ or ‘To each according to his needs and from each according to his capacity’. ‘Division of work’ was based on attitude and aptitude of an individual. It has given to India a solid social-structure, which is simple to understand. Above all, it has provided unity of culture which has been able to bind the people of Indian peninsula from one end to the other.

Mahatma Gandhi said “The main reason of our economic and spiritual degeneration is that we have not correctly followed the “Varna System”. This is the main reason of poverty and unemployment and one of the main reasons that there is untouchability”. He suggested to encourage education amongst the masses for the growth a self-contained and self-regulated society; all occupations to be given equal respect; people to be encouraged, not to be forced to adopt their hereditary occupations; and difference of income derived from various occupations should be narrowed down to the minimum.

“Policy of reservation” lost its validity – “Policy of reservation” adopted by the independent India has lost its value and justification now. Reformatory movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, attempts of constitution-framers spread of education and awareness amongst general public. Many changes have come about in the whole atmosphere, in thinking, attitude and aspirations of common-men. Recent technological advancements have made the life of common-men easier and created enormous opportunities to earn more. The experiences of recent past reveal that Policy of reservation has lost its value and justification now because –

SC/STs and OBCs emerged as powerful pressure groups – After the green revolution of sixties, the economic and political status of people engaged in agriculture India has improved tremendously. India being an agricultural country, 75% of its population (mostly belonging to SC and OBC categories) is engaged in agricultural sector only. Reforms gave them permanent rights as owners or otherwise. New agricultural technologies, backed by administrative and financial support by governmental agencies, helped them the chance to get out of the trap of poverty. They have organized themselves and emerged as a very powerful pressure group both in the fields of economics and politics. Still, if many SC/STs and OBCs have not been able utilise this opportunity fully, fault lies somewhere else and not in caste system. In their under-nourished faces are written the failures of the successive Governments and their policies that have ignored their actual needs.

Caste is no longer a barrier in the matter of jobs – Doors of education have been opened for all. Many scholarships, loans, hostel facilities, and admission in select institutes of the country (Where the whole expenditure is borne by the government) are being made available to them. Many Integrated Development Programmes and Sub Plans have been initiated to improve their position – socially and economically.

Immense choices in matter of occupation – Earlier people were forced to earn their living only by doing their hereditary jobs. But the Constitution of India gave everybody freedom and equal opportunity to select one’s source of earning. Society has accepted the change-over to any profession a person wishes to pursue and for that he has to prove his suitability in the job market. Educational facilities have been provided to them. Many scholarships, loans, hostel facilities, and admission in select institutes of the country (Where the whole expenditure is borne by the government) are being made available to them. Many Integrated Development Programmes and Sub Plans have been initiated to improve their position – socially and economically. However, sub-merged people of SC/ST community have not so far been able to utilise this opportunity fully. Benefits are benefitting the creamy layer amongst them.

Label of Brahmin or Shudra meaningless today – Today, the label of Brahmin or of Shudra does not matter much in choosing a profession. There is no dearth of employment opportunities. From all sections of society, people are acquiring necessary qualifications and are entering into areas of their choice. Experience shows that all are doing well in almost all spheres.

Increasing opportunities in service sector – A vacuum has been created in the service sector, when many traditional jobs became obsolete. Jobs in service sector could also fetch a handsome amount of money. Recently some people engaged in this field such as tailors, carpenters, dyers and drycleaners, owners of hotels and restaurants, owners of video libraries, scooter and taxi drivers even Paanwalas are doing much better than ever before. The key to their success appears to be the very same as elsewhere – hard-work, excellence, maintenance of standard or quality and entrepreneurial skill. Today, in the lure of safe and secure job, easy and quick money, government jobs in local, state or central levels are becoming very popular.

That day appears not to be far off when in complex technological society, the white-collared jobs would loose their present attraction and the service sector would get a prominent place. An excellent plumber then may become more admirable than an incompetent scientist. Therefore, instead of disturbing the efficiency and working of the organized sector, the government could concentrate on enormous opportunities of self­ employment available in this sector, and thus helping the downtrodden to establish well themselves in the society.

Creamy layer amongst beneficiary groups – On the one hand, it has been experienced that Benefit of reservations is confined within a few dominant and prosperous SC/ST and OBC castes. They have now acquired economic, political and above all muscle power. Many of them make vote banks for the politicians, capture booths during elections and could ask their unfortunate brethren to shut their mouths or to meet the consequences. In certain regions, they themselves have become the exploiters of their unfortunate brethren – suppressing the agricultural labours and are heaping atrocities on Harijans.

Efficiency in administration – A service which lacks spirit-de-corps, that is, consciousness of and pride in belonging to a particular service, lacks an element essential to an efficient an harmonious administration. The position further deteriorates in a service in which in matters of promotion, people with superior qualifications are subordinate to people with admittedly inferior qualifications.

It is feared that relaxation in matter of recruitment standard, as reservation policy suggests, adversely affects efficiency of administration. It creates a distance between quota officers and non-quota officers, adversely affects integrity and coordinated efforts of services for development of the nation as a whole. Merit oriented approach in matter of filling crucial and important posts, in principle, opposes reservation of any kind, which gives preferences to a person over a more talented person. It is a humanitarian obligation of a civilized society to uplift and empower the weaker sections of its society. But it should not be done at the cost of efficiency in administration. Mal-administration or ineffective and inefficient administration makes the life of common people more miserable.

False assurances – Politicians and political parties with vested interests are luring the poor masses by promising them to give government jobs through reservations. Government jobs still fascinate the masses as with it are attached the attraction of fix salary, prestige, power, influence, security of employment and scope to distribute patronage. If without acquiring the needed qualifications and without much effort one can get all these things, no body minds it.

Vast reservoir of talents amongst the lower strata of society – There is a vast reservoir of potential/talent amongst backwards as well, only they need opportunities to grow. Their hidden qualifications and capabilities Sound education and training would make aware them aware of their hidden qualifications and their capabilities. Their confidence can be restored, only when they are brought to the level of forward castes people so that they could compete for jobs and promotions on equal terms.

Hurt feelings of poor belonging to upper castes – The deprived and poor people, belonging to so called “Forward caste”, feel betrayed by their own Government. They are being victimised because of no fault of their own. ‘Economic criteria’ offers a general formula to help to all extremely poor and underprivileged individuals irrespective of their caste or creed. Many dynamic and talented youths have lost their faith in the government and interest in government jobs. Upright officers do not get a proper atmosphere in the office or reward for their merit, intelligence, hard work and honesty. On the contrary, due to politicization, growing disregard for the work-culture and overstaffing, upright officers are sidetracked. Fixed salary is just sufficient to keep them from hand to mouth. They have to struggle all through their lives – after paying the taxes, meeting their children’s school fees and coping with ever increasing prices of essential items to maintain a decent life style.

Backwardness of some, not unique in India only – Backwardness of some sections of society having such massive demographic entities is not peculiar to the Indian conditions only. It is universal phenomena. Every nation has it and adopts its own ways to uplift the sub-merged people. The Chinese approach, in this regard is through education and not through unmeritorious reservation of jobs, as there is no need to create vote banks there. Grooming of downtrodden in India could also be done by providing sound education to them. Already there are many institutes and some more may be opened especially for lower strata of society, where they could study the same syllabi and to go through the same courses as other students from a good background. The students from poor background may take more time to go through the same courses and reach up-to the same standard as others. The process may be slow but is steady. The quality of education should not be allowed to deteriorate at any cost as is being done.

Times when Governmental intervention needed – When individuals are proved to be working under special handicap or are not allowed to function freely as citizens, then only the government may intervene irrespective of caste or creed so that deserving persons from all sections of the society may get the needed help. It should punish the culprits strictly and make special provision for advancement of under privileged or handicapped persons. It need not necessarily be in the form of reservations. Reservations have been proved to be disruptive to the peace of the society and unpractical.

Conclusion and suggestions

The past experiences have made it clear that the remedies suggested through reservation proved worse than evils, the leaders were out to combat. To some, this discrimination is positive and to others, negative and contrary to principles of equality, fraternity and social justice.

Deserving people get lost amidst the gore and gusto – The faces of poor people, really deserving support from the government, have been lost amidst the gore and gusto of pro and anti-reservationist movements. ‘Shudras’ have been the life and blood of the Indian society for centuries in the past and led the nation to the ‘Golden Era’. They still provide essential services to the whole community in different disciplines. But in exchange, today, they get very little – not even enough to satisfy their basic minimum needs. Reservation made no difference in their lives.

There is no denial to the fact that for centuries, Shudras have been the life and blood of the Indian society. They have been performing certain traditional standardised services for the whole community. In exchange, as usual, even today they get very little – not enough even to satisfy their basic minimum needs. Reservation made no difference in their lives.

Side effects of Reservation policy – Reservations have developed many side affects. Instead of becoming a viable instrument for the upliftment of the submerged section of the society, it has created vested interests of the powerful lobbies of society. It is serving the interest of those people who do not need it any more and making the administrative machinery sick. Giving additional weapon in weak hands is no remedy. First the hands need to be made strong enough to hold and use the weapon properly through awareness of the surroundings, sound education and-training. Then they themselves without any help from an outside agency will pick up the weapon in their hands and protect themselves and others in the society with it. Education alone can make them more knowledgeable in the fields of their works, more laborious and more confident, so that they could earn enough to live with honour and dignity.

Plans needs to be based on real issues – Witnessing the various views and past experience, it becomes clear that instead of reservation, other development measures should be tried after identifying the real issues and actual needs of these people. Downtrodden must be made capable to stand upon their feet and make their due place in the society. Policy of generating confidence and inculcating skills, knowledge, attitude and habits through sound education should be pursued, so that they could be brought to the required intellectual level, do justice to the jobs assigned to them, hold their positions without any complex and live in the society with honour.

Only two ends in Governance, ‘nation, and ‘individual’ – The unity and solidarity of the nation demands that its population should not be divided along the lines of different identities i.e. caste, region, language, religion or base – rural or urban – by giving preference or over- protection to one section or group over the other. As Kaka Kalelkar had suggested, while framing policies, government should recognise only two ends – the individual on the one hand and the nation as a whole on the other. No sectional or communal grouping should be encouraged to flourish itself in between the two, which could undermine the equality, liberty and freedom of the individuals and the solidarity of the nation.

Result-oriented action programmes needed – Issues should be identified rationally and result-oriented action programmes needs to be implemented sincerely as suggested by the Planning Commission, various government departments and voluntary organisations. The backwardness of most of the people is due to poverty, illiteracy and many evils that go with it such as ignorance, superstitions, mal-nutrition, lack of access to shelter, clothing, health, hygiene etc. These problems can never be solved by making policy of reservation as a major remedial measure. Other remedial measures are required for the development, which could produce desired results within time and cost parameters. More stress should now be given to fair distribution of surplus land and other anti poverty programmes, which could benefit a large number of poor people everywhere if honestly pursued.

Reservations as “Disastrous”, “Fatal” and even a “Vicious principle” – Witnessing the various views and past experience, it becomes clear that instead of reservation, some other measures should be tried after identifying the real issues and actual needs of these people. It was not only the first Prime Minister Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, but Mahatma Gandhi, the Father of the nation, and Chowdhary Charan Singh, the charismatic leader of backward caste, considered reservations as “Disastrous”, “Fatal” and even a “Vicious principle”.

Positive steps needed to be taken – More than Reservations is needed to the inculcation of concentrate on skills, knowledge, attitude and habits through sound education. It would make weaker sections to stand upon their own feet and to survive without the crutches of Reservations. It would bring backwards to the required intellectual level, make them capable do justice to the jobs and fulfil their responsibility without any complex. It would ultimately generate confidence in them and live in the society with dignity and honour.

Vision of Nehru – The vision of Nehru suggested putting emphasis on education – “The real way to help a backward group is to give opportunities of good education; this includes technical education, which is becoming more and more important. Everything else is provision of some kind of crutches which don’t add to the strength or health of the body. We have recently made two decisions: one is universal free elementary education that is the base and the second is scholarships on a very wide scale at every grade of education to the bright boys and girls and this applies not merely to literary education but much more so, to technical, scientific and medical training. I lay stress on the bright and able boys and girls, because it is only they who will raise our standards.” …. “But if we go in for reservation on communal or caste basis we swamp the bright and able people and remain second rate or third rate.” (Chief Ministers Conference, June 27, 1961,)

Authorities like Shri B.D. Sharma, Commissioner for SC/ST, and many others have also opined that policy of reservations in government jobs has not improved the position of the bulk of SC/ST and CECs. Instead it had further developed many problems.

Winding up
•If India wants to emerge as a strong nation in the world, it should give preference to efficiency, motivation, discipline, tenacity of purpose and will to achieve the desired goals.
•It is not the policy of reservation which is required but a policy of generating confidence in backward caste.
•Stress should be given to basic education.
•No sectional or religious group be allowed grow between the government and the individual.
•Really-deserving individuals needing special attention must be identified by assessing their economic condition without any bias.
•All help, such as free and extra tuition, subsidised and extra nourishment, residential accommodation etc., to overcome their disabilities and to acquire requisite abilities should be provided
•Abilities to shoulder responsibilities at entry point and performance throughout the career should always be given importance.
•In postings and promotions, Standard set should apply equally to all and strictly to all.
•At no time and at no level, the standard should be allowed to deteriorate.
•The method of assessment should be continually honed, so that more meritorious persons could be selected.
•Wages should be enough to enable them to work honestly and live in the society with dignity without clamouring for dishonest money.

In the words of Shri C. Rajgopalachari, which he said long ago that for any system “To be good and efficient as a whole we want right type of men. The quality of men placed in position is more important than laying down rules and methods of operation. The caste consciousness is a hard reality. It unites and divides in a very real manner today whatever be our goal and today is most important in matter of administration. Short sighted favouritism and concessions to produce contentment among classes and castes will be very short-lived and will deteriorate into a constant pondering to intrigues and factions, if we do not look to the real efficiency.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Views of Eminent Persons on Reservation

Views on Eminent persons on Reservations,

On 7.2.24, PM Modi read out Jawahar Lal Nehru’s letter in Rajya Sabha as, “I am reading out its translation – ‘I dislike any kind of reservation, more particularly in services. I am strongly against anything which leads to inefficiency and second-rate standards.”

The whole history of the twentieth century is full of the concerns and efforts of the nations to uplift the weaker sections of society and to provide them with a wider base to join the mainstream of the nation. Everywhere in the world, sectarian considerations deprive its weaker sections of the opportunities to progress.

In the past, many theories have been formulated to create conditions for uplifting deprived sections of society. Ideologies like Communism, Socialism, Marxism etc. are propounded for their benefit.    Reservation policy or Affirmative Action Program is also a program, which has been initiated with the following goals: –

I . To remove social and religious disabilities of the deprived people, on account of their social segregation and cultural isolation.

II . To facilitate and promote equal participation of all in nation building activities.

III . To protect underclass from all forms of social injustice and exploitation.[i]

Reservation Policy is a very sensitive issue. To some, this discrimination is positive and to others, negative. From its very nature, the policy is discriminatory and exclusive.  In the name of social justice, the fundamental rights of many deserving people are curtailed or negated. It benefits and increases the number of those who are desirous to find an easier way out.  This policy is contrary to principles of equality, fraternity and social justice.  There is a section of people which regards that there is something fundamentally wrong with it.

Before World War II, the idea to uplift the suppressed sections of society (a development of post second World War Period) and to achieve equality through preferential treatment, was unknown to the whole world. It was much before the war that British Government in India, initiated the policy of Reservation, in the garb of Communal award.

the Reservations, which were confined for a very long time, at Provincial and local levels. For the first time, it appeared on the national scene formally with the Communal Award of 1932. So far, British Government, itself, consistently refrained itself at national level, to give any section of Indian Society any official classification on the grounds that it would be unfair to stigmatize any group by official acknowledgement of their low status.  It considered it unfair because, “Owing to social disabilities, to which members of the depressed classes are exposed, it would be in the highest degree undesirable that any official authorization might appear to extend to such qualification.  The fluidity of social distinctions and the efforts of the classes, lowest in the scale, aided by social reformers, to improve their status, make it more desirable, that Government should abstain from doing anything, which would tend to give rigidity to these distinctions.” [ii]

Views of eminent persons on Reservation

From time to time, eminent persons have expressed their views on Reservation and amelioration of disadvantaged sections of the society, which are as following: –

From 1919 to 1947

Justice Miller – Leslie C Miller, the then Chief Judge of Mysore Chief court and chairman, 1st Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, in his thirty-one-page Report, gave original ideas about Reservation, stressed the need to identify and educate backward classes. He gave reasons for compromising merit for adequate representation of backward classes in administration. He said: –

Ø “Efficiency, however, is not to be measured, solely or even mainly, by academic qualifications and it will not be denied that there are many important branches of the administration, in which other qualities such as sympathy, honesty of purpose, energy and common sense go as far to make an efficient officer as literary seniority” [iii]

Ø “Under the present system of Government, the officers of the Government in the higher grades of the service have necessarily much influence in shaping the policy of the administration and the efficiency of the services viewed as machines for securing the even and uniform progress of the state, is likely to be increased by the presence of their ranks of officers of different communities”. [iv]

Ø “The fact cannot be ignored that an officer in the exercise of his duty, making appointments and promotions, finds it easier to see the virtues of his own community than those of others”.[v]

Ø “It is these (field level) officers, who come most frequently in contact in their official capacity with all the classes of people of the state, and from the point of view of general administration, it seems desirable that in these grades a full representation of all important communities should be found”. [vi]

The Committee classified all castes into: –

Ø          Brahmins;

Ø          Other Caste Hindus, Mohammedan and Indian Christians, and

Ø          Depressed classes (including SCs and STs),

The Committee recommended, “Within a period of not more than seven years, not less than one, half of the higher and two thirds of the lower appointments in each grade of the service and so far, as possible, in each office, are to be held by the members of the communities other than Brahmins Community, preference to be given to duly qualified candidates of the depressed classes, when such are available”. [vii]

The Committee, further, recommended grant of exemption from qualifying educational tests, preferential treatment in the case of equal or nearly equal qualifications, relaxation of severity of prescribed tests, and prescribed selection of minimum proportion of backward classes in making appointments. It advocated special facilities to encourage higher and professional education among members of backward communities or any other special measure, which may be taken to increase the representation of the backward communities in public service without materially affecting efficiency.  This was the start of Reservation Policy.

M.C Ranga Iyengar  – One of the member of the Miller Committee, Mr. Iyengar rejected most of the recommendations on the ground that any Reservation would harm efficiency of administration by preventing persons with merit from joining the services.

Dr. Ambedkar – Ambedkar was the undisputed leader of untouchables, and Doyen of Contemporary Dalit Politics. He was the Chairman of the drafting Committee of the Constituent Assembly, A man, whose life is most inspiring example of what a man can achieve by hard work, knowledge, and clear-cut priorities.  According to him: –

Ø “Reservation is not aimed at economic uplift or alleviation of poverty.  But it is a provision made for the entry of certain castes, which have so far been outside the administration. Hence the need for their adequate representation in State Services.  Adequacy should be judged not by their presence in the lower rung of the services, but their entry into the higher echelons, the corridor of power.”

Ø  “Where a majority of population is denied its share in actual power, there exists no democracy.”

Ø  “Attempt to uplift my community rather than to win Swaraj for the nation is my goal.” [viii]

Ø  “I will leave no doubt in the minds of the people of this country that I have another loyalty, to which I am bound and which I can never for-sake.  The loyalty is to the community of the untouchables; in which I am born, to which I belong and which I hope, I shall never desert.  And I say this…. as strongly as I possibly can that whenever there is any conflict of interests between the country and the untouchables, so far as I am concerned, the untouchable interests will take precedence over the interests of the country.  I am not going to support a tyranny of the majority, simply because it happens to speak in the name of the country. As between the country and myself, the country will have precedence, as between the country and the depressed classes, the depressed classes will have precedence.” [ix]

Ø He regarded Hinduism and caste system as “great obstacles to Hindu Unity” [x]

Ø  “My self-respect can not assimilate Hinduism…The religion that does not recognize you as human beings…is not worthy to be called a religion.”

Ø  “In an ideal society, there should be many interests consciously communicated and shared.  There should be varied and free points of contact with other modes of association.  In other words, there should be social endosmosis.  There is fraternity, which is only another name of democracy.  Democracy is not merely a form of Government.  It is primarily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated experience.  It is essentially an attitude of respect and reverence towards fellow men.” [xi]

During Constituent Assembly Debates, Ambedkar advocated the policy of Reservation.  But later on, as a socialist and humanist, which had the long-range interests of untouchables at heart, had developed doubts about advisability and efficacy of Reservation Policy.  Chowdhary Charan Singh said, “Ambedkar himself declared in a speech sometime before his death that the provision of Reservation in service should not extend beyond 1960/61.”[xii] Pr. Balraj Madhok had also pointed out that later in life, Ambedkar realized that SC and ST would not be able to stand on their own feet, so long as they depended on the crutches of Reservation. “Reservation,” Dr. Ambedkar said, “Encouraged backwardness, inefficiency and lack of competitive merit among them barring a few stray cases.”  Therefore, when he launched the Republican Party of India, he incorporated this view in the Manifesto, according to which the party was committed itself to abolish all kinds of Reservations based on caste and birth.[xiii]

During his last days, Ambedkar said, “I have not been able to fulfil my mission.  I wanted to do more for the SC people and to see them as governing class in my life.  I could have succeeded, but my own people have deceived me.  Whatever I have been able to do, is being enjoyed by the educated people and they are the worst fools.  I now want to divert my attention to the uneducated masses, but life seems short.  The second worry to my mind is that I wanted that somebody from the SC should come forward and take the responsibilities from me.  There, however, seems none to shoulder such a heavy responsibility.  All are selfish and quarrel themselves on petty matters.” [xiv]

The present day followers of Ambedkar do not seem to have understood Ambedkar in right perspective.  He wanted to annihilate caste system not by revenge, hatred and violence, but by rethinking, reason and reformation.  He, therefore, taught untouchables “To organize, educate and agitate” with an aim to finishing caste prejudices, the arrogance, and the “Holier than thou’ attitude of Brahmins.   He wanted his people to improve their condition by education, enlightenment and enterprise not by animosity, anger and abuse.  It is quite understandable that he did not hate Brahmins as he was happily married to a Brahmin lady.  He respected Justice Ranade.  However, his followers appear not to have done justice with Ambedkar and used his name ruthlessly for their selfish motive and political ends.  They idolized Ambedkar as “Rescuer of Dalits”.  The trend in 90”s of idolization of Ambedkar or attempts of Ambedkarisation of the nation exposed the intentions of his followers, especially when he himself considered idolization as an act leading to destruction.  Today agitated the Dalit leaders are, but their agitation is far away from being a positive or constructive one.  It has turned into a negative militancy against caste Hindu.

1990’s witnessed a wave of Ambedkarisation.  Many politicians started describing Ambedkar as the “Father” or “The maker” of Indian Constitution.  Experts on Constitutional law have some Reservation to such expressions, because both the constituent Assembly and its Drafting Committee headed by Dr. Ambedkar were the formal centers of work.  The real place of work was the Congress Working Committee, which took all the important decisions. There, the prominent role was played by leaders like Nehru, Patel, Rajendra Prasad or Constitutional jurists like Alladi Krishna Swami Ayyar, K.M. Munshi and others.  It was frankly admitted by Mahavir Tyagi, one of the members of Drafting Committee, and Dr. Ambedkar himself that their hands were tied and they were only carrying out the wishes of the majority.  After an examination of the situation, Pr. K.V. Rao said, “No doubt, Ambedkar, a man of legal acumen, untiring industry, consummate skill and firmness, tempered with modernization, made substantial contribution to the framing of the Constitution…My reading of the Constitution makes me feel that it is inappropriate to call Dr. Ambedkar, the father of the Constitution. If any people are entitled to be called so, they are Nehru and Patel, but I would like to call them the “Presiding Deities”, the sources of all the ideas of the Constitution, the real makers of the Constitution. I would like to attribute father-hood to them as well as to the members of the Drafting Committee in common, but I would not like to single out Dr. Ambedkar for this honour.” He had recognition as an intellectual having his own philosophy and interpretations, but he lacked leadership qualities and mass appeal. Ambedkar earned the wrath of intelligentsia during pre-Independence period because: –

Ø  He, himself, was a beneficiary of social reform movement in Maharashtra led by nationalist leaders and reformers mostly belonging to caste Hindus. But he regarded caste Hindus as his enemy,

Ø  The intelligentsia regarded his move for separate electorates for untouchable as an act to divide Hindu society permanently.  It is alleged that he could not rise beyond his caste identity,

Ø  He was criticized for his association with Simon Commission proceedings, First Round Table Conference and Viceroy’s Executive Committee as member, with an intention to cooperate with British rulers, at the time, when national leaders were fighting British rulers for Independence;

Ø  His anguish against Hinduism and caste system and his act of burning Hindu-script, which he regarded as great obstacles to the Indian unity, annoyed many.

Ø  People did not like his confrontation with Gandhi. Ambedkar, like Jinnah was against Hindu majority rule, Congress Party and Gandhi. Both of them reacted against the above three in similar manner most of the times and preferred continuance of British rule.

Mahatma Gandhi – Both Gandhi and Ambedkar were opposed to caste-oppression, caste-discrimination and committed to transform the socio-economic and political status of untouchables.  But their approach was different.

Gandhiji could never reconcile with Ambedkar’s arguments during Simon Commission proceedings for separate political rights for untouchables from that of Hindus.  According to Gandhiji the terms of “Communal Award of 1932 will ensure them (untouchables) bondage in perpetuity.’  He asked, “Do you want the untouchables to remain untouchable for ever.  What is needed is destruction of untouchability.”

Gandhi’s’ approach was to do it in an unobtrusive way.  He advised untouchables to fight against oppression through awareness, education and self-confidence by adopting cleaner habits and not using foul language, overcoming their weaknesses, thus by bringing reform from within. At the same time, he made efforts to arouse the conscience of caste-Hindus by advising them to treat untouchables humanly.

Gandhiji always believed in a good balance between rights and duties, giving importance to means as well as ends and considering basic values of life to be extremely important for development.  Gandhiji never believed in superficial measures – Reservations being one of them.  Some of his views are: –

Ø  “So far, as the Reservation in Government Departments is concerned, I think, it will be fatal to a good Government, if we introduce there the communal spirit.  For administration to be efficient, it must be always in the hands of the fittest.  There should certainly be no favoritism…. If we want five engineers, we must not take one from each community, but we must take the fittest of five, even if they were all Muslims or all Parsis.  The lowest poor must, if need be, filled by examination by an impartial board consisting of men belonging to different communities.”

Ø  “Distribution of posts should never be according to the proportion of members of each community…. The educationally backward communities will have a right to receive favored treatment in the matter of education at the hands of the national Government.  This can be secured in an effective manner.  But those, who aspire to occupy responsible posts in the Government of the country, can only do, if they pass the required test.”

Gandhiji, unlike Ambedkar was not an individual crusader.  He was a man of mass action.  He converted Tilak’s revolutionary Mantra, “Swaraj” into mass struggle for national regeneration through Tilak’s four-fold program – Swadeshi, boycotts, prohibition and national education. He preached what he did and practiced himself. He suggested to respect all kinds of work and to ready to do any work – even scavenging, without any hesitation. He himself did it along with the untouchable.

Some of the Members of Constituent Assembly 

Gyani Gurumukh Singh Musafir – Gyaniji felt that the society had made the untouchables live in a very poor condition for hundreds of years.  Therefore during Constituent Assembly debates he said, “Now when India has become free, it becomes the first and foremost duty of Central and Provincial Governments and of every Indian to see that these crores of downtrodden men are lifted…” “They should be provided water, housing and education…” So long as these depressed classes have this idea amongst themselves that they belong to this particular sect, so long as they think that they have this label affixed to them, it is difficult for them to progress.  The very name gives them this complex that they belong to a depressed class.”[xv] 

Subhash Lal Saxena – During the Constituent Assembly debates, he said, “If capable Harijans are available, they should be recruited to senior posts.  Besides the ordinary posts, the Harijans should be given all such jobs, for which they are eligible.  Harijans should be recruited in the Police.  They should be given the posts of Patwaries, School Masters and Head masters etc.  These posts would remove the inferiority complex, which is prevailing among them.” [xvi]

From 1947 to 1960

Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru – Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru, The first Prime Minister of India (1952 -1964), was a visionary, a theoretical revolutionary, an idealist and a socialist by conviction.  His ideas were greatly influenced by the modern West.  Gandhiji described him as, “more English than Indian in his thought and make.”  Masses fell under the spell of his irresistible charisma and yet he could not identify himself with the masses and adopt their life style as Gandhiji and Patel did.  He remained distant and aloof even in their midst.[xvii] His opinion about Reservation was, “I referred above to efficiency and to our getting of the traditional rut.  This necessitates our getting out of the old habit of Reservations and particular privilege being given to this caste or that group…It is true that we are tied up with certain rules and conventions about helping the SC’s and STs.  That deserves help, but even so, I dislike any kind of Reservation, more particularly in Services.  I react strongly against anything, which leads to inefficiency and second rate standards.  I want my country to be a first class country in everything.  The moment we encourage the second rate, we are lost…This way lies not only folly but disaster.” [xviii] Nehru in a letter to Patel (March 29, 1950) showed his frustration, “I see every ideal that I have held fading away and conditions emerging in India, which not only distress me, but indicate to me that my life’s work has been a failure.”  This depression/frustration of Pt. Nehru reached to its maximum before his death in 1964.

Sardar Patel – Sardar Patel was an important member of Constituent Assembly and first Home Minister of independent India. Sardar Patel along with Gandhiji, DR. Rajendra Prasad and Nehru captained and pulled the nation out of darkness and stormy times preceding and following the transfer of power. He was down to earth a realist, a born Kisan and a traditionalist.  He was “The iron man of India with strong will power, sturdy commonsense, indomitable courage, incorruptible integrity, austere and simple living unlike today’s politicians.  He led a life full of suffering and sacrifice.  Devotion to duty was the hallmark of his character.”[xix] He was a strict disciplinarian.  With his mature thinking and realism, he handled many complex state affairs like broken law and order machinery at the time of transfer of power, expeditious evacuation of millions of Hindus and Sikhs caught in the Communal holocaust in West Pakistan, or vexatious issue of the division of assets between India and Pakistan, or smooth integration of Indian States by pacifying the Princess of 500 and old princely States.  He warned the nation, “India is passing through the most critical and troubled days of her long and checkered history and strong, efficient, experienced broad minded administrators were badly required at that hour to save the nation from the impending crisis.  On the eve of Independence the entire administration exhibited the signs of wear and tear”.[xx] At Bombay in October 1947, he said, “We have only a small number of Civil Servants left.  Many people say that they are working in their old way.  But those, who have experience of administration, know under what circumstances and how much they are working.  Outsiders can not appreciate their work.  Many of them, loyal workers and patriots are working with us night and day.  All that we have been able to achieve, whether it be in the sphere of states or in Kashmir or another theatre, has been possible only because of their loyalty and whole hearted support.”[xxi] Sardar Patel was opposed to the  “Parrot cry of socialism and lashed out against socialists for their agitation on an issue, which he considered, was hampering unity and strength of the country.  He is reported to have remarked on 2nd January 1948 at Shillong before a mammoth gathering. “By experience, I am convinced that what is necessary for us is to learn how to produce more wealth (created by ones own labour) and thereafter think what to do with it.  What the country needs is not parrot like cry of socialism, but unity and strength” Patel asked the people to think, why England took a long time to become socialistic and why America made no mention of it even now.

Kaka kalelkar – Kaka Kalelkar, Chairman of the First Central backward Class Commission, though in his Report recommended Reservation for Backward classes in class I, II, III and IV Services of Government of India.  But later, in his note of dissent, he expressed his views on the issue of Reservation, the weaker sections and their uplift.  According to him: –

“If the backward communities have neglected education it is because they had no use for it.  Now that they have discovered their mistakes, it is for them to make the necessary efforts for making the leeway…As far as the assistance in the matter of education for the backward classes, I am convinced that introduction of basic education in all the states with help the backward communities to cultivate self-confidence.  They will also have a better chance of succeeding in open competition and having the special advantage of mixing with people and serving them, they will prove themselves better administrators and leaders of society.”[xxii]  He also said, “I am definitely against Reservations in Government services for any community for the simple reason that services are not meant for the servants but for the service of the society as a whole.  Administration must have the services of the best men available in the land and this may be found in all the communities.  Reservation of post for certain backward communities would be as strange as Reservation of patients for a particular doctor.  The patients are not meant to supply adequate or proportionate clientele to all the doctors, whatever be their qualifications.’ [xxiii]

Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia – Dr. Lohia said, “Castes restrict opportunity, restricted opportunity constricts ability, constricted ability further restricts opportunity, where caste prevails opportunity and ability are restricted to ever narrowing circles of people.”

Jagjivan Ram – Jagjivan Ram was a cabinet Minister in Indira Gandhi’s Government.  He was known for his administrative capabilities.  “I am for Reservation,” says Mr. Jagjivan Ram, “not because it is a means of economic uplift, but because it is an instrument of social change…I will not seek Reservation for my son, the day he becomes touchable…If a chamar’s son becomes a sub-inspector, a Brahmin constable will salute him.  Imagine what kind of social revolution it is, when a bhangi’s son becomes a district magistrate.” [xxiv]

Chowdhary Charan Singh – Chowdhary Charan Singh, a Jat leader, was the founder of Lok Dal, an ex Prime Minister, Charismatic leader of Backward castes and the political Guru of Sharad Yadav, Ram Vilas Paswan, Mulayam Singh Yadav, Laloo Prasad Yadav and many others.  He wrote to Sri Banarasi Dass, the then Chief Minister of UP, about the Reservation as under: –

          “It must be conceded that Reservation on the basis of caste is vicious principle and creates many problems.  More than Reservation in recruitment, it is Reservation in promotions that have led to great heart burning and great inefficiency in our services.  Such Reservation, whether in favour of scheduled or backward castes, was, in my opinion beyond intentions of the founding fathers. Boys belonging to poor families, particularly those, where large section of our people are considered socially inferior for centuries past, are entitled to consideration rather than concessions at the hands of the Government of Independent India.” [xxv]

Chowdhary Charan Singh was also against extending Reservation to SCT beyond 10 years, as is evident from the contents of the same letter, “The Union Government however, has for political reasons, been extending the period of Reservation decades after decades.  There should be bar on children of those, who have benefited from Reservation and those who are income tax payers, so that other less fortunate could be helped…Children of all those, who have already been benefited by Reservation and thus have been brought in a cultural environment higher than the average, should not be entitled to this concession.”

Rajiv Gandhi – Rajiv Gandhi, Prime Minister of India between 1985 to 1989, in a talk with Dileep Padgaonkar, said,  “Today the major challenge for the nation is rapid development.  If the nation does not move ahead at the fastest possible pace, it is going to miss-out on global changes that are taking place.  If we are not on the scene as a major player, very soon we will not be a player at all…Hence rapid development.  Common wisdom is that you get meritocracy in all the right places and then everything will work well.  Meritocracy does not belong to particular groups.  The idea that it belongs to certain groups creates social tensions.  It is the duty of the Government to bring more and more people out of their economic, social and educational backwardness…Forty years ago; it may not be possible to take an alternative action.  Now India has reached to the stage, when an alternative action has to be given to the disadvantaged groups to come up.  It should be ensured that the gap between Reservation benefits and non-reserved quota could be minimized…To push up the percentage, economic and educational measures have to be taken…In the north, the cut off between open and reserved is very wide, while in Tamil Nadu, there is a difference of only about 2%.  When people come to that sort of equality in educational terms, one can start thinking of qualifying the affirmative action, so that the really weak benefit from it. [xxvi]

VP Singh – VP Singh was the Prime Minister of India during 1990-91. He was not in favour of Reservation when he was Chief Minister of UP, or when he was a Minister in the Cabinet of Indira Gandhi or Rajiv Gandhi. Yet, he took the decision to implement Reservations in the Government of India when he was the Prime Minister. His views on Reservation are as under: –

Ø  “In the land of Periyar and Kamraj, thanks to the policy of Reservation in state services, one belonging to socially backward community could become a policemen or Tehsildar. But if Mandal Commission was implemented, the candidates from backward caste could straight away become the collector or SP.” [xxvii]

Ø  “Coming of the deprived sections into higher power echelons is a revolution in Indian political and social history.” [xxviii]

Ø  “Bureaucracy is an important organ of the power structure and it has a decisive role in the decision making exercise.  We want to effectively give to the depressed, downtrodden and backward people their share in the power structure and in decision making to run this country and improve things.” [xxix]

Ø   “The iniquitous social structure is sustained by the iniquitous power structure. Therefore, there is a need for Affirmative Action.” [xxx]

Ø  “As far as criticism that efficiency shall suffer as a result of the Reservation policy, I say that only a person who has suffered as SC/ST/BC/OBC member of society, can be a good administrator.  A feeling heart with less intelligence is more important in administration than having intelligence.’ [xxxi]

Ø  Reservations have “Brought a glimmer of hope to the eyes of those, who have known only social oppression for centuries.  It has “opened a small door to give them a share in shaping the destiny of the nation.” [xxxii]

VP Singh has changed the nation’s political agenda.  Even earlier also, he had raised different issues that seized the national imagination.  In his political life, he had always selected subjects that grip national attention and nobody could dare oppose his ideas.  In 1990, again he rewrote the rules of political game by raising the issue of Reservation based on castes and since then, it became a political reality either to accept Reservation or be labeled as anti-Reservationist and risk to loose backward caste votes.  On the one hand, a massive shift in power structure has taken place since 1990.  Over 75% of the members elected in Assemblies and Parliaments are now from the deprived sections.[xxxiii] The Reservation policy has found a wide spread acceptance with all other parties jumping bandwagon.  On the other hand, a casteist monster has been  let loose by Mandal acceptance making each individual caste-conscious.  The tradition of Indian politics ever since Independence movement had been consensual. Since 1990, it became confrontationist. It has caused polarization of society on caste lines and spread suspicion against each other. Caste-wars have rocked the Hindu-belt, especially Bihar. Law and order situation deteriorated all over India.

Quite often, it is alleged that it was not the concern for the downtrodden, but the compulsions of electoral arithmetic that led VP Singh to take such a decision. He unleashed the politics of caste in order to secure political mileage, to wean away backward castes MPs from Devilal’s (the then Deputy Prime Minister) clout, to delink the backward castes from Jats, to give a big blow to BJP by dividing Hindu Society on caste lines, to consolidate his social base –  Rajputs, backwards and Muslims and lastly to get a firm foot-hold in the South.  Very soon, it was realized that one can fool some people some of the time, but not all people for all time.  His arithmetical calculation did not yield much to him or to his party.  He alienated middle class and antagonized press and intelligentsia.

Chandra Shekhar –  Chandra Shekhar, Prime Minister of India in 1992, said, “Mandal has allowed narrow-factional and electoral interests to prevail over national interests.” [xxxiv]

Jagannath Misra  – Misra,an ex  Chief Minister  of Bihar,  feels that the implementation of Mandal recommendation, “Apart from dividing the Hindu society, has divided the Muslims on caste lines as well, as it lists some vocational minority groups as backward, leaving aside a vast majority of them to feud for themselves.  The community as such is socially backward and the bulk of them are below poverty line…And their representation in the State and Central Services is only minimal.” [xxxv]

Ram Vilas Paswan –  During 1990-91, Mr. Paswan, a Cabinet Minister in VP Singh’s cabinet, championed the cause of Reservation. However on December 12, 1987, in a speech at Benepatti, Madhubani, he demanded amendment in the Constitution to end the prevalent policy of Reservation for Harijans and backward classes in Government Services and replacing it by right to work for everybody, because…Reservation system had failed to achieve its purpose and had created social tensions in the country.  Later on, he changed his views and opined as under :-

Ø  It is ironical that, “The one, who makes clothes, does not have clothes to wear, the one that makes shoes, does not have any to wear himself and the one, that makes houses, does not have a roof over his head.”

Ø  “The mindset of the upper-caste is difficult to change, which has hardened over a thousand years of oppressing Harijans and regarding them a lesser being.”

Ø  “Right now our society is like this, with each caste lying oppressively on the one below it.”

Ø  “Though several laws have been enacted to improve their lot, much of it remain on paper…Harassment, brutalisation and killings of Harijans continue in remote backward areas, where a majority of Dalits still live in the dark ages of denial and deprivation.” [xxxvi]

Ø  Paswan regarded Reservations in jobs and educational institutions necessary, because it had made it possible for a son of oppressed to become a collector or SP.

Ø  “Nothing will change till they are given a share in land, industry and administration beside politics.  No amount of reform with the old structure will do, it needs to be dismantled wholesale.” [xxxvii]

Ø  ‘There is no justification for finishing Reservations for downtrodden, till caste-system exists.’

Ø “If justice was denied to poor, the doors to violence would be thrown open.’ [xxxviii]

Ø  Paswan challenged the argument of merit by saying “Merit ! what is Merit… What merit is there in Capitation fee system?”

Kanshi Ram – Earlier, Kanshi Ram, founder and Supremo of BSP, was Member of Republican Party of India – the only Dalit outfit before 70’s.  In 1973, he formed the Backward and minority Community Employees Federation.  In 1981, he launched BSP and provided the country a new formula of DS4 (Dalit Samaj of SC, ST, OBC and Minorities). He says: –

Ø  “No economic system, be it communism, capitalism socialism or liberalism, can succeed in India, as long as the “ism” of Brahminism holds sway.’ [xxxix]

     Ø    “We have no other program except the one to capture political power.”

He is critical of Dalits groups in Maharashtra for always seeking concessions from the upper castes.  He wants the Dalits to aim for political power.  He said that he was opposed to Reservations and land reforms.[xl]  Mr. Kanshi Ram declares himself as king-maker and says, “BSP is a self centered party.  I will ensure that no Government stays at Center for too long.  Not until, we are ready to takeover.[xli]

Syed Shahabuddin  – Shahabuddin stresses,  “In a democracy every social group is entitled to share the fruits of development and keep a hand on the lever’s of power…Both inter and intra group disparity must be reduced by legislative policies.  If the backward classes come into administrative posts, they may be able to increase efficiency, as they will be, having grass-root knowledge of actual problems”. [xlii]

Ram Jethmalani –  According to Jethmalani, a leading lawyer,  Reservations would destroy visible casteist indignities.  The poverty in India was not the general poverty resulting from general causes like colonial exploitation, paucity of natural resources or inefficient management of economy.  The poverty was the direct result of “Unspeakable atrocities perpetuated by a small number of privileged individuals on the vast majority of their countrymen.” The constitution framers took cognizance of the tragic historical realities and promised to the people – justice, social, economic and political.  The preamble of the Constitution did not talk of merit or efficiency.  It preferred justice as a superior goal and made it a fundamental principle of governance of the country. “In some way, caste Hindus are accountable and punishable for the sins of their ancestors.  Therefore, the high castes should willingly support the policy of compensatory discrimination.”  Mr. Jethmalani further says, “Any revolution being impossible in a segmented Indian Society, Reservation is the best instrument for social change.  It is a slow, but sure process….For talented persons of higher castes, vast, almost limitless scope for growth and achievement is available in private sector.  The whole of private sector is available to them.  The liberal professions are wholly open to them.  Besides Commerce and Industry, in the rest of the world, outside India is open to them. Even in the field of public employment vast chunks like defense and atomic research have been left out for them…The choice before our young men of merit is clear.” [xliii] According to him, the objectives of Reservations are: –

Ø  Remedying historical injustice;

Ø  Eliminating prejudices against historically discriminated groups;

Ø  National Integration by bringing within power structure the groups, so far excluded because of social discrimination. [xliv]

About caste as a basis, he has to say that Mandal did not create castes.  It is the reality of Hindu Society especially in rural India.  Constitution also failed to abolish caste system.  Besides law permits caste associations.  The castes, identified as backward, have not  done blindly.  The authorities have used a large data base like Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Anthropological Survey of Social Science Research, National Labour Institute, The Center for Study of Developing societies, Institute of Economic Growth and Indian Law Institute. They had conducted extensive field survey and research.  Mandal Commission itself applied eleven indicators of backwardness.  Caste has been recognised as a base for the sake of convenience because: –

Ø  Members of a caste share a common level of opportunities and resources;

Ø  Social and educational backwardness due to low status and deprivation of advantages to some castes;

Ø  In a country, where caste is detriment of many things, where social life is influenced by caste and where caste determines the occupations of large number of people, which in turn directly effects their status and poverty, it is undesirable to ignore caste in determining backwardness;

Ø  Dependence on caste makes it easy to identify traditionally backward groups. [xlv]

Swami Agnivesh –  A leader of Bandhua Mukti Morcha, he says, “We have created our fractures and schisms – It was not the Mughal, it was not the British, but it was Vedas that consolidated casteism in Indian Culture….We can see Reservation policy today as palliatives, as attempts to whitewash bitter historical reality, sitting of a handful of armchair sociologists and people pretending the rest of backward India does not exist…An egalitarian society can be established only when the people are given their due.  The monopoly of upper castes on jobs, business and services would no more be allowed.”

Intelligentsia –

SS Gill – SS Gill, the Secretary of Mandal Commission, feels that Indian society  has always been a deeply divided society. Caste based Reservations have been practiced in India most effectively for the past 3000 years.  In view of continued all round deprivation of the lower castes over the centuries, these Reservations are their long due.[xlvi]  Mr. Gill defends Reservation and Mandal Commission by saying: –

Ø  “Its aim is not poverty eradication, but an effort to restore human dignity to masses and build confidence in them.  Moreover, it sought to bring a reduction in social disparities, that divide Indian society.”

Ø  “The control of nation is in the hands of upper castes and the lower castes had been left to do the menial work.  The 17% of the population belonging to upper castes decide about the fate of 83% of lower castes.  Let the 83% become the part of decision making and decide themselves about their welfare.” [xlvii]

Seervai HM – According to Seervai, a Constitutional Expert, Reservations in services affect five parties adversely :-

Ø  The state, to whose service, persons are recruited by open competition in examinations held by independent Public Service Commission;

Ø The Public, as the very phrase “public servant” shows;

Ø  The persons, who are discriminated against, by Reservation in favour of members of SC/ST/OBC;

Ø  Members of SC/ST/OBC, in whose favour discrimination is being made by fixing Reservation quota, and

Ø The service, that is each service considered as a whole.

A service, which lacks espirit de corps, i.e., consciousness of and pride on belonging to a particular service, misses an element essential to an efficient and harmonious administration. The position further deteriorates in a service, in which in matters of promotion, people with superior qualifications are subordinate to people with admittedly inferior qualifications. [xlviii]

Palkiwala Nani A  – Palkiwala, a leading lawyer and Constitutional Expert  says that Reservation Policy suffers from five fatal flaws: –

Ø  The substandard replaces the standard and the reigns of power are to pass from meritocracy to mediocracy,

Ø  It ignores the reality that there is no backward castes, but backward individuals,

Ø  Reservation in promotion is disastrous enough for the Civil administration,

Ø  It divides the country along caste lines and is against social harmony and social intermingling of various castes, and,

Ø  Equality is the very heart of free republic, the foundation stone of true republic, the source of inspiration, the criteria for its citizenship and the hope for its welfare.  The bedrock of Reservation is discrimination in reverse; it is discrimination against merit and caliber.[xlix] Palkiwala opines that Mandal has revived the casteism, which the Constitution emphatically intended to end. [l]

Pr. Beteille – Pr. Beteille, an eminent anthropologist, says, ‘Those, who see oppression everywhere – at school, in office and workplace, at home, in places of entertainment, indeed in every image on the Tele-screen, end by making non-sense of the very idea of power or society.’[li] He further says, “Once the uneven distribution of caste in public institutions comes to be perceived as a problem of distributive justice, institutional well being takes the back seat…Job Reservations in public institutions are required to protect the interest of SC/ST/Backward Classes and minorities.  If this argument is believed to be right and acted on, then our institutions can not function, as they ought to, their well-being will be irreparably damaged…The best course would be to expand the pool of qualified candidates at the lower level, but this would call for patience, which no Government in India has so far shown…A quicker course,  whose effect would show immediately in official statistics, would be to alter the proportions directly through Reservation of jobs.” [lii]

Arun Shourie  –  Arun Shourie, an Eminent Journalist,  believes that a society, based on the principles of social justice, integrity, equal rights and opportunities for all, means recognition for the inherent rights of every human being to work and achieve the essentials of life like food, clothing, housing, education, social amenities and security.  These should not be determined by accident of birth or sex, but by planned social distribution, to accept the claim of every citizen to the right to enjoy basic rights and liberties.  It also means to create awareness among its citizens, so that they can justly exercise their rights and perform their duties. 

“A job should be something, which one has to work to get, something which one has to do one’s utmost to retain and advance in it.  It should not be, advancement in it must not be any one’s right.  Reservations definitely develop ethos that the job, the promotion is mine by right and that too, because of my birth, not work.  How can a modern society survive, let alone grow with this as its ethos. [liii]  According to him: –

Ø  Reservations were introduced as an exception, a temporary one, but it became a permanent feature,

Ø  It tends to grow. Concessions once given to a group is grabbed one after another group,

Ø  Concessions introduced in one sphere spreads to others.

Ø  With its growth, it suffers progressive, rapid debasement.

Ø  A concession, once given, becomes a right.

Ø  Democratic institutions like courts find itself unable to arrest the rot and to ensure, that it sub-serves the end, for which it was meant.

BD Sharma – in his 29the Report, Mr. Sharma, an ex-Commissioner for SCT, pointed out  that  the policy of Reservation in Government jobs has not improved the lot of the bulk of SC/ST in the country.  In fact, in many cases,”Their condition has further deteriorated.  It is quite clear, that even if, the policy of positive discrimination was to succeed fully, it could benefit only a small section of these communities.  On the other hand, if inequality continues to increase in our country or continues even at the present level, the maximum damage will  fall on the members of these communities themselves, because their condition is already the worst, as in the case of the SC; or because they are facing the most severe backlash of development as in the case of the ST. The policy of Reservation is ironical, as it demands a share for the weaker section in the gains of iniquitous system, which in the ultimate analysis can not be anything, but the proceeds of exploitation of other poor belonging to the same group, who remain at the bottom.”

Observations of the Courts

Efficiency in administration – “It must not be forgotten that the efficiency in administration has such paramount importance, that it would be unwise and unpermissible to make any Reservation at the cost of efficiency of administration.  That undoubtedly is the affect of Article 335.” [liv]

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Sheth DL – Reservation Policy revisited edited by V.A. Pai Panandikar – The Politics of Backwardness 1997.

[ii]         Indian Statutory Commission 1930 VI, p 341.

[iii]  Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, p2.

[iv]  Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, p2.

[v]  Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, p2.

[vi]  Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, p3.

[vii]  Backward Class Committee of Mysore, 1919, p4.

[viii]  Dalit Bandhu,  Dated April 15, 1948, p31.

[ix]  Cited in Ganguly Amulya, Unexpurgated Version, Times of India, dated May 25, 1994, p10.

[x]   Kuber WN,  Ambedkar, p177.

[xi]  Times of India, Dated April 17, 1994, “Ambedkar”.

[xii] Indian Express, Dated September 14, 1990.

[xiii] Pr. Madhok Balraj,  Aryan Heritage,  May 1985.

[xiv] Chandra V and Mowli,  BR Ambedkar – Man and his vision,  1990.

[xv] Constituent Assembly Debates, November 27, 1947.

[xvi] Constituent Assembly Debates, November 27, 1947.

[xvii] Krishna B. Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel: India’s Iron Man, Hindustan Times, Dated November 12, 1995, p5.

[xviii] A letter Dated June 27, 1961, addressed to Chief Ministers of various States.

[xix] Krishna B, Times of India, Dated November 12, 1995, p 5.

[xx] Provincial  Premiers Conference in Delhi. October 21, 1946.

[xxi] Quoted in “Sardar Patel” by PD Saggi, p185.

[xxii] Backward Class Commission Report 1956, Vol. PX.

[xxiii] BCCI, ibid, pVIII.

[xxiv] India Today, Dated April 15, 1985, p61.

[xxv] A letter Dated February 12, 1982, quoted from Indian Express, September 14, 1990.

[xxvi] Times of India, Dated September 2, 1990, p11.

[xxvii] Indian Express, Dated  December 28, 1992.

[xxviii] Hindustan Times,  Dated August 4. 1997, p12.

[xxix] Independence  Day speech on August 15, 1990.

[xxx] Indian Express, Dated November 23, 1990, p4.

[xxxi] Times of India. Dated, September 17, 1990.

[xxxii] Times of India. Dated, September 28, 1990, p8.

[xxxiii] Hindustan Times, Dated  August 4, 1997.

[xxxiv] Illustrated Weekly September 16, 1990.

[xxxv] Frontline September 15-28, 1990 P.32.

[xxxvi] Times of India. Dated, April 18, 1993, p15.

[xxxvii] Frontline August 31, September 3, 1991 P.100.

[xxxviii] Times of India, Dated, April 8, 1992.

[xxxix] Times of India. Dated, December 7, 1993, p1.

[xl] Times of India. Dated, December 27, 1993.

[xli] Times of India. Dated, September 24, 1990.

[xlii] Times of India. Dated, September 24, 1990.

[xliii] Times of India. Dated, September 28, 1990, p8.

[xliv] Ram Jethmalani – Why I support Mandal, Sunday, October 21-27, 1990, pp. 64- 66.

[xlv] Sunday 21-27 October 1990.

[xlvi] Illustrated Weekly of India October 7, 1990.

[xlvii] Times of India. Dated, September 24, 1990.

[xlviii] Seervai “Is an efficient public service irrelevant in India, Indian Express September, 1990 P.1.

[xlix] Palkiwala – Unity and Security of State at Stake  Indian Express September 14, 1990).

[l] Times of India. Dated, February 22, 1992.

[li] Times of India. Dated, July  20, 1993.

[lii] 6th T.T. Krishmachari Memorial lecture on Distributive Justice and Institutional well-being” on November 11, 1990 at Institute of Economic Growth.

[liii] Shourie – This way lies not only folly but also disaster, Indian Express 22.8.1990.

[liv] Justice Gajendra Gadkar on Rangachari case 1961.

Reform, Perform and Transform, Core Values of Hinduism

“Traditional living had been an anchor, keeping our boat in safe harbour. Now that the anchor had gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.”

Recently, sharp debates and discussions are going on in Indian political circle, over the following issues. Some leaders have raised their voice on issues like –

1. What is the need of having many names for India? Does Modi Government intend to change the name of the nation from India to Bharat?
2. Is Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma entitled to be called a religion? Because it is discriminatory in nature and against the principle of Equality and Social Justice.

Both these issues are inter-twined. The seeds of these controversies were sown much earlier, and now they have blossomed in full.

Why these controversies? – At present, a “Rat-race” is going on between different political parties, keeping in view the coming elections of Parliament and state legislatures. The purpose is to grab political power and get full control over the treasury of the nation, by hook or crook,  to gain maximum political milage in coming elections, and rule the nation for next five years. All the parties are all out to avail maximum advantage of the popularity, India has received recently, within the nation and abroad, from the successful operation of Summit G20, landing the space-rocket on moon, and other developments happening in the spheres of technology and infra-structural sector of the nation.

All the problem starts with the formation of anti-Modi Morcha, naming itself I.N.D.I.A. (Indian, National Developmental Inclusive Alliance), just before the G20 Summit and the upcoming general election for the parliament and state assemblies in 2024.

Leaders of Opposition parties question Modi government why the nameplate read Bharat instead of India, when PM Narendra Modi addressed Global leaders during G20 Summit. Or Why was President of Bharat printed on invitation cards of foreign delegates? Why was ‘Bharat, The Mother of Democracy’ printed on G20 booklet presented to foreign delegates? Does Modi-Government intend to change the official name of the nation, from India to Bharat? Now, sharp debates and discussions are going on over these issues.

It seems by changing its name from UPA to INDIA, opposition parties hoped that whenever there would be any talk about India, within the nation or abroad, or while casting their votes, I.N.D.I.A., their alliance, would remain foremost in people’s minds and they could gain politically the maximum during the coming elections. The hope that credit of recent developments would automatically go to I.N.D.I.A., gets belied. Anti-Modi Morcha now fears that if officially or otherwise, name “Bharat” becomes more popular, they won’t be able to get full advantage of changing the name of the alliance from UPA to I.N.D.I.A.

Being so, Opposition Parties started criticizing that Modi Government has highlighted the name ‘Bharat’, because it wants to change the official name of the nation, from India or to Bharat in near future. Some political leaders have even launched an attack on Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma, saying that Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma (religion) of discriminatory and against the principles of equality and social justice. It is anti-Dalits and pro-Brahmin religion.  It is not a religion at all, but a disease like Dengue, Malaria and Corona. Therefore, Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma should be abolished. It has sparked discussions and debates now in the political circle all-over India.

In reply, Party in power defends government stand by saying that the main purpose of summit G20 summit, 2023 has been to acquaint invitee countries about the indigenous culture of India and spread the messages of “Vasudaiva-Kutumbkam”, “One Earth and one family” and “One Family and One Future” all-over the world. These phrases have been drawn from the text of ancient scriptures of India.

Before forming any opinion on these issues, first of all, it is necessary to know

1. What India is? And
2. What religion means?

What India is?  – Sub-continent India is a wonderful country. It is in the Southern part of Asian Continent. Himalayas separates India from Europe. From one side, it shares land borders with seven countries Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. And on other three sides, there is Bay of Bengal in East, Arabian sea in West, and Indian Ocean in the South. Geographically, India has Himalayan mountains, Indo-Gangetic lowland and Peninsular plateau. All these areas have different climate, different quantity of rainfall, different quality of soil, different kinds of vegetation, crops and minerals.  Therefore, the people living in different parts of the country differ from each other in their needs, way of living, eating habits etc.

From ancient times, India had established commercial contacts with China, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Roman Empire. It has resulted in the spread of Indian culture, religion, languages, art and architecture abroad.

What is the meaning of Religion? – Worry ends, when faith begins for humans. Religion as the belief in a supernatural power that organizes and animates the universe has, always, been an important part of human ethos. Faith in any religion is a very personal thing.

The ‘Religion’ term originating from the Latin word ‘Relgio’ means ‘restraint’ or ‘bind-together’. It means reverence to God or Gods, careful pondering of divine things, piety.  It is an organized system of beliefs and practices leading to a transcendent spiritual experience. (Religion in ancient world, World History Encyclopedia).

Purpose of religion – In modern World, there are there are several religions, religious bodies and faiths groups (about 4,000 recognized faiths) around the globe. All religions value of selfless service and devotion.  Main purpose of ‘Religion’ is to serve several functions for the society. It is –

• To give meaning and purpose to life,
• To reinforce social unity and stability.
• To control social behavior.
• To promote physical and psychological well-being, and
• To motivate people to work for positive social change.

Major religions of the world – There are 12 major religious groups all-over the world. Out of them, World-over, 75% of people follow one of the five Faiths, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism.  At present, Hinduism (15%) is said to be the oldest religion. It is also the third largest religion (15.2) of the world after Christianity (Christianity 33%) and Islam (24.1%).

Christianity – Earlier, Ancient Europe like elsewhere was also polytheistic. It believed in worshipping multiple gods and goddesses. It included virtually all religions other than Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which share a common tradition of monotheism, the belief in one God. South-Eastern European nations, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, had a very rich collection of the literature, philosophy ideologies including knowledge about “Faith”. These two nations are generally considered to be the birthplaces of Western civilization. Ancient Greece had big influence on Rome due to its impact on philosophy, democracy, science, aesthetics as well as architecture and town planning.

After the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in the Roman Province of Judea. The first Christians were all Jews. After AD 380, Christian religion became the predominant religion in Western Europe guiding the course of philosophy, art and science. It saw huge advances in areas like philosophy, medicine, mathematics and urban design.

Europe during medieval period – During medieval times, started the gradual decline of the rich culture and science, philosophy and knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome, because of continuous barbarian invasions, Black death, feudalism and people’s concern for the barest essentials of life. This was the Dark Age for Europe.

Harsh working conditions, cruel child labor, dirty living conditions, long working hours prevailed in Pre-Renaissance European society. Catholic Church became the pivotal force, which dominated the lives of all, Europe Royal Houses, nobility and working class. It demanded people’s unwavering faith in the norms set by the Church.

Renaissance Movement in Europe (between 14th and 17th centuries) – Dark Period was followed by Renaissance movement. Beginning of Renaissance movement marks the transition of the whole world from Middle Ages to Modern Period. It was the beginning of Industrial Revolution. Historical period of Renaissance movement is also called as ‘the Age of Reason and enlightenment’.  This period is famous in history, because it has drastically changed socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices of European world. Industrial revolution profoundly affected European intellectual life. It has laid foundations of technological innovations, urbanization, scientific discoveries and literature etc. for coming centuries.

The sincere knowledge seekers of European nations did not care for their own comfort inconveniences, and faced all the challenges. They worked hard and sacrificed their time and energy for about two centuries energy to lay the foundation of a modern world based on observation and rationality as well as future development of science and technology. Invention of printing, being one of them, that has helped in the dissemination of ideas from 15th century onwards.

Influence of these developments has been felt everywhere, in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry.

The term “Religion” for adhering any faith, itself, originated in Europe during renaissance movement. After renaissance movement, the term religion is being used for organized set of religious beliefs. People increasingly began to see world rationally from a human-centered perspective. They used the term ‘religion’ to distinguish worldly things from religion, spirituality and morality. They fixed the domain of the church. Religion was separated from state business. Idea of secularism emerged, meaning that there should be non-interference in the functioning of any religion by the state.

Islam – Like Christianity, Islam is also a monolithic religion. The start of Islam religion is marked in the year 610, following the first revelation to Prophet Mohammad, last in the line of Judeo-Christian Prophets (ca. 570-632). His followers spread the teachings of Islam throughout the Arabian-peninsula. At present, adherents of Islam constitute the world’s second largest religious group. As of 2010, there are 49 countries, in which Muslims comprise more than 50% of population. Studies of 21^st century suggest that Islam is now the fastest growing major religion in the world.   

Hinduism, originally known as Sanatan Dharma – India presents one of the oldest living civilization and culture of the world with a very long, continuous and uninterrupted History, which is intact even today. India has taken thousands of years to grow in its present form.

Hinduism, earlier known as Sanatan Dharma, is generally believed to be the world’s oldest religion and was founded more than 4,000 years ago. Also, it presents one of the continuous, and uninterrupted living cultures and civilizations in the world. Unlike Christianity or Judaism. Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma is compilation of several belief systems. As such, sometimes it is referred the ‘family of religions’ because of its accommodating nature.

Around 1500BC, Indo Aryan people migrated to Indus valley, located in modern day Pakistan, where their culture and language merged with the natives of that region.

Indus Valley region was one of the earliest civilizations, in the world. It started around 3300 BCE. Since the Indian civilization started near Indus Valley, the nation got the Name India. India has been also home to an indigenous tribe called Bharat.

More than anywhere else, Hinduism holds multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There is co-existence of various beliefs and thoughts.

Assaults on Hinduism – During the course of its long jouney, Hinduism has to face many assaults, like –

During Medieval times – With the downfall of Gupta Empire, (known as times of ‘Golden age’ of Hinduism) (320-650 CE) and collapse of Harsha Empire, power became decentralized in India. Several kingdoms emerged and began several invasions during Medieval Period. Continuous invasions of Turks, Afghans, and Mughals (of Gajini and others between 998-1030 AD, establishment of Slave Dynasty 1206-1290, Khilji Dynasty 1290-1320, Tuglak Dynasty 1320-1412 and Mughals rule, Sayyad Dynasty 1414-51, Lodi Dynasty 1451-1526, and Mughals rule from 1526 to 1757 have continuously pressurized Hindus and their religion. Excesses of the rulers throughout turned Hindu society to look inwards and save their identity, values and Dharma. It led them to follow their traditions, rules and rituals strictly, rigidly and blindly.[i]. Gradually, it gave birth to many social evils like superstitions, Sati-Pratha, dowry system, Purdah system, feudalistic attitude extravagance, Band luxurious life-style. Disparity between rulers and ruled increased.

Attack on Hinduism during colonialism – Then came the British Imperial rule. During British rule, two aspects of Hinduism had received a good deal of the attention of rulers.

• Caste system and
• Reluctance of Vedic Dharma to convert people of other religions, on the ground that all religions are valid.

British rulers and missionary schools condemned the caste system, and they enthusiastically applauded the reluctance of Hinduism to convert people of other faiths.

Through modern education system, British succeeded in disassociating Indians from their traditional way of living, classical roots and knowledge. They launched an ideological attack on Hindu practices labelling them as ‘discriminatory’, ‘iniquitous’, ‘exploitative’, ‘oppressive’, ‘barbarous’, ‘uncivilized’, ‘highly stratified’ and ‘responsible for all social evils’, ‘feudalistic attitude’, ‘backward thinking’, ‘whimsical concept of purity and pollution’ and ‘belief in dogmas and superstitions sustained by a unique set of rituals.

Criticism of Hinduism by India leaders before Independence – Criticism of Hinduism and its value system by Westerners has led many prominent political leaders like Mahatma Phule, Ambedkar or Gopal Ganesh, to lose their faith in Hinduism and its value system. They criticized Hinduism for its being based on caste system. According to them Hinduism encourages Brahmans with the help of religion, and treats lower strata of society as lesser human beings, subjugates lower castes, engages them in forced labor, unsavory jobs, imposes many restrictions on them, preventing them from joining the mainstream of the nation.

Recent attack on Hinduism – Recently, some Indian political leaders of leftist parties have launched an attack on the nature of Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma describing its nature as discriminatory. So much and so that one of them compared it with ‘Dengue and Malaria’, while another said, that Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma is not a religion in true sense. It is discriminatory in nature. It is anti-Dalit and pro-Brahmin religion. Therefore, it should be abolished. Such comments have sparked hot discussions and debates all-over India.

The fact that there were times in the past, when after such attacks, Hinduism has become weak for some time. But every time it remerged and whenever it re-emerged, it re-emerged with greater force. Hindu Sanatan Dharma never needs foreign help to rejuvenate itself. It has developed in such a way that it can look inwards and improve upon itself. Most of the times, the Indian society has been able to develop “an attitude of reconciliation rather than refutation, cooperation rather than confrontation and co-existence rather than mutual annihilation.”[i]

Why such a confusion about Hinduism now? – The root cause of such a confusion or criticism about Hindus’ Sanatan Dharma in present days’ political circle is because critics if Hinduism have translated the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’, literally as Religion. In fact, calling Hinduism merely a religion, is a very narrow understanding of Sanatan Dharma.

Unlike Christianity or Judaism, Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma is compilation of several belief systems. As such, sometimes it is referred the ‘family of religion’. Because of its accommodating nature, Sanatan Dharma has come up to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some adaptions and modifications. At present, there are many religions, faiths, religious groups in India. Followers of all the 12 major religions live here.

Brief history of India – 5000 years old history of India is as following –

Hinduism not merely religion – In fact, Sanatan Dharma of Hindus is not merely a religion in narrow sense of the term.  It is much more than that. Many scholars, philosophers and jurists have repeatedly said that the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’ is not translatable in English. Hinduism is not merely a religion. It is much more than that. Words like law, righteousness, ethics, morality all together are not enough to give Justice to the meaning of Dharma. The principle of Dharma embraces within itself “religion”, “law”, “duty”, “righteousness”, “morality”, and “conformity with truth”. Along with its being a “religious idea”, Dharma is also a “principle” and a “vision” of an organic society, in which all participating members are independent, yet their role complimentary. It is a collection of traditions, personal experiences, way of living, religious practices and culture of many migrating social groups earlier from land route and later from sea-route. It is one of the most scientific ideologies ever developed anywhere in the world. It is an ideology also, a collection of Philosophy, a culture and way of living to lead a quality of life. has been started after the Colonization under the influence of British rulers.

Evolution of Sanatan Dharma – Sanatan Dharma of Hindus has come into existence much before the term ‘religion’, itself, was coined. The narrow meaning of Dharma, in its present form, was non-existent existent at the time, when Upanishads (Vedic Text, which contains some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) were composed.

Sanatan Dharma or Vedic Religion, is the religion of majority of people, living in India. It is the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted religion, a culture and civilization of the world. Principles of Hindu Sanatan Dharma are as relevant today as it were earlier.

Sanatan Dharma has come into existence around 3300-1300 BCE on Indo-Gangetic plains (in northern parts of India) and matured by 2600-1900 BCE. It has been spread and flourished throughout India during 1500 BC and 500 BC and gradually spread all-over South-east Asia, China, Korea and Japan. Vedic Hindu Dharma has taken centuries to develop. Many knowledgeable persons contributed to its growth from time to time after doing through research work and analysing rationally their personal experience. Hindu culture has entered the modern era without any cultural break.

As India passed through various phases in the past, each and every incoming social group has left its influence on the indigenous culture of Sindh Valley. Multi ethnic migrant groups and tribes came to ancient India in waves. In due course of time, they were assimilated in indigenous Hindu society as its integral parts by giving each one of them a distinct caste name. Hinduism allowed them to follow their faith, beliefs, customs, traditions and way of living, which are intact even today. 

The blending up of incoming social communities with original Dharma of the land has developed into Hinduism or Vedic Sanatan Dharma. It has come down to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some modifications and adaptions.

Sanatan Dharma, most scientific Ideology – Sanatan Dharma (eternal values) in its purest form is one of the most scientific ideologies, ever developed anywhere in the world. It is a magnificent example of scientific division and orderly arrangements of rules, in different branches of human knowledge, in a few words. It covers almost all aspects of human life, be it spiritual, phonetics, literature, arts, medicine, polity, or metrics. Its principles speak of everything, on staying healthy, positive thinking, improving concentration, moral behavior or following path of righteousness. Its rituals are techniques for leading a harmonious life. It is as relevant even today as were in the past.

The sacred knowledge of Vedic Hindu Philosophy has been handed down from times immemorial, by ancient sages, Rishies and Munies to succeeding generations, through verbal transmission. Later on, in written form. 

Foundation pillars of Hinduism – The foundation pillars, which has kept unity and continuity intact are:

Principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma – Together, the principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma have enabled people to lead a quality of life and ensured continuity despite several invasions, migrations and assimilation of a large number of multi ethnic social groups from different parts of the world.

Principle of Varna has given to Indian society, a stable, sustainable social structure, which distributes and organizes performance of various functions, doctrine of Dharma defines duties and vocations of different sections of society on the basis of attitude and aptitude, ensure social harmony and prevent rivalries, competitions and jealousies. Doctrine of Karma prevents cut throat competition by making the inequalities tolerable for an average person.

Spirit of Tolerance – Spirit of tolerance and firm belief in “Live and let others live” or “Vasudhaiva-Kutumbkam” have always been the part of Indian ethos. Tolerance is most evident in the field of religion. Vedas does not prescribe any final absolutes. Even Vedas are not the end for quest of Truth and knowledge. It is a constant non-ending process.

Vedic belief in an all-pervading omnipresent God, multiplicity of God and Goddesses as representing some portion of infinite aspect of the Supreme Being, inspired Hindus to accommodate people of other faiths. Vedic culture concedes validity to all the religions and does not lay strictures against any faith. That is why all the twelve major religions are present and flourishing in India without any restriction.

Tolerance is not confined to religion alone. It is seen everywhere in Indian way of life. Even today, people tolerate the Vote bank politics, which has polarized Indian society on the basis of caste and community, criminalization of politics, corruption, scams and scandals and inefficiency in administrative work or poor law and order situation without much protest.

 Simple and compact life-package of Sanatan Dharma – Simple and compact life-package of Sanatan Dharma nurtures the nature. After a deep study of natural instincts, inherent attributes, natural behavioural pattern of human beings and their basic physical, mental, and spiritual needs, at different stages of life, Sanatan Dharma has developed a simple compact life package in conformity with the forces of nature. It is as relevant at present as it was earlier, in the past. It is applicable to all for all time to come, irrespective of Varna, caste, creed or region. According to it, following are different stages in human life –

• Pre-Ashram stage (Infancy and Childhood) – At this stage, society through family contributes.  individual remains neutral. Task of the family is to lay the foundation of developing the personality of a child (say ipto 5 years) with love and care.
• Stage I, Brahmcharya Ashram (Stage of Learning for an individual) – At this stage, Society is the giver, and individual is recipient. It is a period of strict discipline. Purposeis learning and acquisition of knowledge. For mental and physical discipline Yoga and knowledge play an important role.
• Stage II, Grahasthashram – At this stage, Society is the recipient, individual make contribution. Individual is trustee and Manager of social estate. Individual has direct contact with society and makes direct contribution to society consistent with the dictates of his own knowledge and conscience. the real ground to utilize one’s intellectual and physical capabilities. To indulge one-self in economic activities in order to fulfil one’s dreams and ambitions, to keep direct contact with the society. This stage of life presents to individual opportunities to practice and cultivate all the three Dharmas – Artha, karma and Moh (fulfilment of duties and financial and material success and full enjoyment of life).
• Stage III, Vanaprastha Ashram – It advises a person to prepare himself for loosening earthly bonds. It advises him to achieve salvation through good deeds and social service. Task assigned to this group is teaching Dharma and extended care.
• Stage IV, Renunciation or Old age – It is a phase of resignation and renunciation. A person is completely free from any obligation. Realization of Dharma and wisdom is the aim. It advises individual to achieve complete detachment and lead a simple life.

Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and men were closer to nature, people could follow the Sanatan Dharma without much hassle.  But in modern times, life has become quite difficult, materialistic and complex. Moral values have been eroded. Now-a-days, most of the people are running blindly after money, power, position, name and fame.

Strength of Sanatan Dharma – The strength of Hinduism/Sanatan Dharma is proved by the majority of its followers in modern India. The strength of Hinduism/Sanatan Dharma is proved by the facts –

• Despite centuries of Mughal’s and British rule, over 75% of Indian population is Hindu,
• Had it become obsolete, it would have given place to other religions and culture, as has happened elsewhere in the world,
• Instead, it has influenced all other religions found in India.
• Not only within India, but principles of Hindu Philosophy have been a source of inspiration for the whole universe, spreading the message of developing peace, harmony, compassion and eternal values of Humanity. Scholars of many countries have learnt Sanskrit, interpreted its principles rationally and translated them in their own respective languages.

Don Martindale (1915-1985), leading American sociologist, a prominent scholar and teacher, has rightly said about Hinduism that it has “succeeded in doing in India, what no state, no conqueror and no economy was able to do, the establishment of a single unified system of society throughout the whole of India, a system of society, which was able to comprise a greater range of local differences in a single system than any society has previously accomplished.” (Don Martindale, India since 1947, p 39).

Following are the strengths of Hinduism and its principle of Varna, followed by the caste system –

• Sanatan Dharma nurtures the nature.
• Adopted the path of assimilation – The beauty of Sanatan Dharma of Hindus is that it has adopted the path of assimilation, instead of repulsing any trend vehemently or allowing others to sweep its established culture off its roots. It does not believe in conversion. It does not believe in converting people of other faiths or forcing its own beliefs, practices or customs on others. In the past, it has assimilated numerous social groups at their will, migrating from different parts of the world. Not only assimilated, but carefully nurtured and preserved the faith, culture and way of living of incoming social group, coming to its fold. It has given Hindu society, a syncretic character, a pluralistic tradition and an absorptive nature of internalizing alien influences. prescribes
• Neti-Neti – Hinduism believes that even Vedas are not the end. Creation and quest for knowledge is a constant process without any beginning or an end. It does not prescribe any final absolutes. Search of knowledge and truth is a never-ending process, “Neti-Neti”.
• Detachment – According to Bhagwat Gita, senses are superior to the body. Mind is superior to senses. Knowledge or intellect is still superior to the mind. Soul is above all. (BG3.42, Chapter 3, verse 42). There are two options before human beings, to develop positive mindset/intellect for taking right action, or have negative mindset, act with weak mind bridled with desire and based on emotion, impulse, hatred, greed and selfishness. Positive mind/intellect can be developed through meditation, practice and continue to do their duty without focussing on fruits of their actions. Renunciation of fruits of action automatically brings peace of mind and contentment.
• Gives importance to tolerance, Self-discipline, self-reliance and self-respect –Hinduism lays stress on tolerance, truth (Satyamev Jayte), Ahimsa (non-violence) and peace. In the past, when people were compelled to work under the threat of a whip, their intolerance led to bloody revolutions, especially in ancient Greece, Rome, or other European countries. However, tolerance of people has enabled Hinduism to survive in modern India as well, without any cultural break. It has prevented people from following the path of violence, and taught them to make efforts to adapt themselves with changing times.
• Concept of purity and impurity of Hinduism is based on considerations of self-discipline, self-restraint, hygiene and cleanliness. While ranking different varna or castes, Hinduism gives importance to standard of morality, knowledge and spirituality. Every section of society is advised to lead a self-restraint and self-disciplined life in all respect, be it in the matter of daily routine, occupation or inter caste relationship. The higher the caste within a Varna, the purer it is considered, and greater are the self-restrictions on its behavior through rituals. The system of each caste having a specific position in the society and a specific work to do with its rights and duties boosted the morale of the people and promoted social equilibrium and solidarity.
• Based on vision of organic society – Hinduism is based on the “vision” of an organic society. Society as an organic body needs services of all its constituents equally. It has assigned important social functions, needed for the growth of the whole society, to different sections of society on the basis of their attitude and aptitude. All the parts are equally important and indispensable, need equal attention for and care for balanced growth of the whole system. Coordinated functioning of all parts together keeps whole system fit and alive. The system has evolved its structures and systems leisurely and kept on coping with the slow changes, time brought in. Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether different from what exists today. It is still in a transient phase. It is different in context of village, locality, region or religion.
• Inter-dependence in social life – Inter-dependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life are the intrinsic features of Hinduism, making each section of society self-sufficient and capable to fulfil all the needs of its members. Hindu festivals like Holi, Deepawali, or Dussehra inspire people to share moments of joy. 
• Caste system being used as a mechanism to assimilate new social groups – Don Martindale says, that through caste system, India has simultaneously accommodated “itself to an almost endlessly varied system of semi-autonomous community and at the same time bring considerable unity, harmony and condition of peace.” It “succeeded in wielding an enormously varied plurality of semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places and adopting themselves to many different conditions into a single system of society…” Caste system has provided a mechanism, through which migrating new social groups could join the main-stream of the Hinduism in due course of time, without conversion. Each new incoming social group was assigned a separate caste name. This way, a large number of discrete tribes, various social groups and associations, have been internalized and preserved under one umbrella, i.e., Hinduism. Hinduism has not only accommodated and bound migrating groups into a single cultural system, but has given freedom to continue their faith, way of living and traditions.
• Not much disparity – Varna system, followed by Principles of Hinduism has been so conceived by the genius sages that there is hardly any room for any Varna to consider itself, as being placed in greater or lesser disadvantageous position with reference to another. The relative standing of four Varnas is more or less fixed. But Hinduism does not create any nationwide hierarchy of castes. No caste has ever taken an all-India character, before the Census operations started be British rulers. There is not much disparity between different castes or between urban and rural people. The tropical climate of the country compelled the people to the distribution of surplus, as it was difficult to store anything for long. The system has placed all the individuals, within a caste group, rich or poor, on the same footing. All members of a caste have similar rights and duties, similar thinking process, similar customs, language, food habits, domestic routine, and style of dress. Elders of different castes are responsible to maintain discipline and help weak, poor or helpless caste-fellows. Tropical climate of the country compelled the people to the distribution of surplus, as it was difficult to store anything for long.
• Ranking – Ranking of different sections of society or Varnas groups has been done according to nature and social relevance of their work, contribution of their work for social subsistence, and efforts required to perform their duties, and amount of self-restraint/self-discipline, they exercise, their relative purity, morality, knowledge and spiritual standards. Considerations of self-discipline, hygiene and cleanliness on the basis of climatic conditions of the region were also given importance, while ranking different castes. The concepts of forward castes or backward castes, disparities between different sections of society and exploitation of the weak were almost non-existent earlier.
• Acted as a shield – During medieval India, caste system was a major force for failure of Islam, Christianity and other religions to make headway even after mass conversion.
• Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma, a classic example of Unity in Diversity – India comprises people of different ethnic, religious, castes, linguistic and regional identities. Despite of following diversities, different identities have been living together for centuries and present a mosaic culture. The diversity made the divide easy.  However, the forces of unity have always been stronger than the divisive forces. It is for this reason that India occupies a special place in the global society.
• Geographical Diversity – Geographically, India has Himalayan mountains, Indo-Gangetic lowland and Peninsular plateau. All these areas have different climate, different quantity of rainfall, different quality of soil, different kinds of vegetation, crops and minerals.  Therefore, the people living in different parts of the country differ from each other in their needs, way of living, eating habits etc.

• Ethnic Diversity – During its very long journey so far, India has assimilated different multi-ethnic communities into its mainstream. In the past, various multi-ethnic migrant groups came to India in waves from different parts of the world, settled down here, and finally, willingly merged into the mainstream of Bharat. Such as Negritos from Africa, Australoids considered to be the original builders of Indus Valley Civilization, Mongoloids coming from China, Mediterreans believed to be the bearers of the earliest form of Hinduism coming from Southwest Asia around 2000 BC, Amphizoids, Denaris, Arminids coming from South Europe, and Nordics etc. These identities lived together for centuries. India has never destroyed the faith, way of living or culture of incoming communities. Instead in due course of time, it assimilates them into the mainstream of Indian Society as its integral parts. Their assimilation in Hindu society resulted in –
• Linguistic Diversity.
• Occupational diversity and
• Cultural diversity.

• Cultural Diversity – India is a wonderful country. It is a classic example of Unity in Diversity.  The cultural diversity of India is based on –
• Demographic Diversity based on Principle of Varna followed by caste system.
• Religious diversity. 

Demographic Diversity based on Principle of Varna followed by caste system – Hinduism follows the Vedic Principle of Varna for stratifying Indian society followed by caste system unlike western societies. It has given a distinguished identity to Hindu society. Vedic principle of Varna has been conceptualized, originated and practiced in India. It has given a distinguished identity to Hindu society. It has classified Indian society on the basis of attitude, aptitude and occupation, into four groups. Varnas has always been four, Brahmins (intellectuals), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas, (business community) and Shudras (manual workers). It puts individuals in one of these groups on the basis of their attitude, aptitude and occupation.

Origin of Caste system – The number of these Varnas has always been four. As the number of various racial, tribal, occupational and various migrant social groups from different parts of the world, coming in waves in India, via land routes, increased, Varna system gave birth to Caste System. Numerous castes, sub-castes and sub-sub castes emerged within each Varna.

Perhaps, the first faint trace of caste is to be found in the careful cataloguing of traders and professions in later Vedic literature. Many traders were organized into guilds around 5^th century AD, in which, some authorities have seen the origin of commercial castes. These can be seen as the castes in making. Even up to 7^th century AD, people showed no clear knowledge of the existence of castes. Huan Tsang, in the Seventh century was well aware of the existence of Varna, but not of castes. Ever, the number of castes, at present is around 1100 + in India.

As the number of various racial, tribal, occupational and various migrant social groups from different parts of the world, coming in waves in India, via land routes, increased, Varna system gave birth to Caste System. Numerous castes, sub-castes and sub-sub castes emerged within each Varna.

In modern world, understanding of caste, element of caste has been high-lighted and mis-interpreted, and element of system has been considerably suppressed. Following are the strong points of caste system

Diversity based on religion – Assimilation of multi-ethnic communities and Sanatan Dharma’s nature of allowing them to preserve their distinct beliefs, dialects, values, customs, way of living and traditions has resulted in religious diversity. At present, more than anywhere else, Hinduism holds multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There is co-existence of various beliefs and thoughts.

Main religious groups in India – Indian sub-continent holds a unique status in the world because of the diversity of its religious beliefs and practices. It is the birthplace of four major religions of the world, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Main religious groups in India are –

Group	% of population in 2011	% of population in 1991
Hindus	79.8	81.53
Muslims	14.2	12.61
Christians	2.3	2.32
Sikhs	1.7	1.94
Buddhist	0.7	0.77
Other religions	–  –  –	0.38
Religion not stated	–	0.05

These religions can be grouped as –

1. Religions generated within the land of India, like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
2. Religions of diverse migrating or foreign communities like Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism etc.

Out of them, Hindu’s, Mughals’ and Christian’s religions have received substantial state patronage for a sufficient long time.

Mosaic Culture of India – The composite culture of India has come up to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some adaptions and modifications. It grew out of influence, intermixing, refinement of ideologies of different religions. At present, there are many religions, faiths, religious groups in India. Followers of all the 12 major religions live here.

Each and every religion, existing in modern India has been immensely influenced by Vedic Sanatan Dharma. Sanatan Dharma has also absorbed good points of other faiths. Together, they have enriched the composite culture of India. Various existing religions in India and their influence on each other, are as follows –

Hinduism/Vedic Sanatan Dharma – Hinduism, also known as Sanatan Dharma or Vedic Religion, is the religion of majority of people, living in India. Principles of Hindu Sanatan Dharma are as relevant today as it were earlier. It is the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted religion, a culture and civilization of the world. It has come into existence much before the term ‘religion’, itself, was coined. The narrow meaning of Dharma, in its present form, was non-existent existent at the time, when Upanishads (Vedic Text, which contains some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) were composed.

Vedic Sanatan Dharma is the religion of majority of Indians. It could well be called a natural response of many small and primitive social groups of people, who were forced by the circumstances to come to terms with a more civilized, advanced and well-organized social system of Indus Valley civilization, every respect, be it its social structure, philosophy, way of living or culture. Scholars regard Vedic culture as a fusion or synthesis of four major denominations of Hinduism (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Sanatan tradition) with various Indian cultures, (having diverse roots and no specific founder).

Buddhism and Jainism – Buddhism and Jainism, the two earliest unorthodox religions were emerged in Indian soil, but after Vedic culture, with certain basic differences. These religions influence the thought, moral and life style of Indian people.  Buddhism attracted equally the elite as well as the lower strata of Hindu society.  The main contribution of Buddhism to Indian culture is an attempt to draw the attention of people towards the harsher effects of the caste system, sympathetic attitude towards lesser human beings and system of organized education.  Major contribution of Jainism is the principle of non-violence.

Dravidian culture – The culture of South is greatly influenced by Hinduism. After the sudden disappearance of Indus valley culture, Dravidian culture flourished in South under the rule of Cholas, Pallavs, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashrakutas, Kakatiyas, Hoysalas beyond Vindhya Hills in the Southern part of India. Its most characteristic features have been its town planning, advanced social system, industry and trade. Hinduism was the state religion of most of the South Indian Kingdoms earlier. Hindhus, in South India, are followers of various Hindu Branches like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Brahmanism, and others. South India is famous for many greatest Hindu temples, built in South India during Ancient and Medieval India.

Islamic culture – After the tenth century, under Muslim rule, Islam has influenced the Indian culture substantially. Its influence could be seen in the rejection of elaborate rituals and caste pretensions. It has preached a simple path of faith, devotion, brotherly love and fellowship.  With the growing political strength of Muslims, the need for mutual understanding and communal harmony gave rise to Sufi tradition of Islam and Bhakti movement of Hindus. Both these emphasized the need for mutual appreciation, tolerance and goodwill.  Like Buddhism, Islam also provided an alternative to people, wishing to opt out the caste system.

British Culture – Eighteenth century onwards, the British culture influenced the Indian way of life substantially both positively and negatively. Access to modern education, Western literature and philosophy has given Indians understanding of liberal and humanitarian ideas of the West. It produced many great leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Ferozeshah Mehta, Gokhale, Gandhi, Jinnah, Ambedkar, Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Moti Lal Nehru, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Patel and many more.

Missionaries converted many people from the lower strata in to Christianity.  British rulers divided the Indian population on the basis of religion and caste. British rulers have given to India many democratic institutions like Parliament, bureaucracy, concepts like rule of law, unified nationality, a common currency, a common Judiciary etc. They started industrialization in India. They have also given impetus to social progress and brought many reforms.

A section of educated Indian society has been so much impressed by the alien culture that it developed a complex about the primitiveness of Indian society, and tried to improve the mindset of Indian society with the help of British rulers and Christian missionaries.

Many Reformers and religious organizations advised people to revive their own rich ancient culture and not to be swayed away by the glamour and materialism of western culture. Amongst them were most prominent were Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayanand, Prarthana Sabha, Rama Krishna Mission, founded by Swami Vivekanand to reveal to the world Indian Philosophy and culture. Reformers and National leaders welcomed the rationality and other good features of Modern English culture, but wished to remain firmly rooted to the Indian Culture.  They advised people to eradicate social evils like Sati, Polygamy, child marriage, un-touchablity and many superstitions prevalent at that time without foreign intervention.  Emphasis was laid on education and science.  Brahma Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1928, inspired the people of Bengal, UP, Punjab, Madras and other provinces, to form similar organizations and interpret religion rationally. They talked about the superiority of Hindu Vedic culture and gave the call for ‘Go Back to Vedas’, as Vedas were to them the source of all knowledge and truth.

The wonderful process of assimilation and fusion of all these religions and cultures has been a continuous process of the India civilization.  Initially, blending up with original Indus Valley Dharma with Aryans’ developed Hinduism or Vedic Sanatan Dharma. It has come down to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some modifications and adaptions. Then a major cultural synthesis took place during 6th and 10th century, between Vedic Hindu culture, Buddhism and Dravidian culture.  Another assimilation was seen after the 10th century, when the thinking of Arabs, Turks and Afghan, mainly guided by reason, influenced Indian thought. Sufi and Bhakti movements are examples of this. These two sects taught the people to love and respect all human beings irrespective of caste or creed. These also brought changes in the nature of mutual understanding, communal amity and accommodation.  Once again, during the period between 18th century to 20th century, a major cultural synthesis took place with modernization and industrialization ushered in by the British.  All the sects present in India, whether foreign or indigenous, have been influenced greatly by Hindu thinking, practices and systems.  It contributed to the cultural richness of India.  Such flexibility is not seen in the West.  When Christianity broke away from Judaism, it departed totally from the common cultural traditions. The present crisis between the followers of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Middle East in Israel and its neighboring countries is a burning example of religious intolerance.

How can it be expected that the Western world and their followers, who are deeply influenced by their ideologies can understand and appreciate Sanatan Dharma of Hindus.

Westernization of Indian society? – Ever since 1990s, the influence of advanced Western nations, on Indian people especially the youth is continuously increasing. It has impacted the life-style, ideas, and culture of Indians both in positive and negative ways. Modern educated Indians are deeply influenced by industrial, technological, economic progress of Western nations, as well as their music, food habits, language law. They appreciate law-and-order situation, job-opportunities for talented youth and work-culture that prevail in advanced Western countries. They prefer to go abroad, to greener pastures and get settled there. Those, who live within India celebrate with more enthusiasm western festivals like Valentine-day or Halloween etc.

Why Western World Mystified? – Western world and followers of Western way of life are mystified by the amazing pluralities and unique social structure of India based on caste. Because –

• Basis of stratification – While in Western world, usually anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify ‘class’, as universal basis of stratification of Western societies, Indian society stratifies Indian society into 4 Varnas, followed by caste system, on the basis of attitude and aptitude.
• Practiced exclusively in India – Stratification on the caste/Varna system has been conceptualized, originated and practiced exclusively in India. It has given a distinguished identity to Indian society.
• Power and social status associated with wealth – In materialistic Western societies, wealth has always been associated with power, authority and social status. In India, its Caste system has separated wealth from status, power from authority, pursuit and achievement in knowledge from temptations of worldly comforts.
• Ranking – Ranking of different social groups is done on the basis knowledge, discipline and moral standards, and not on the basis of material success, or control of power.
• Stress on duties rather than rights – Whereas, Western cultures have grown around the idea of `Rights‘,  Hinduism give more importance to “duty, tolerance and sacrifice”. Emphasis on duty usually makes a person or a group humble and tolerant. Its helps people to adjust themselves, without much difficulty, to most drastic changes. India has even, achieved its freedom in a peaceful manner under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
• No conversion – Unlike Christianity or Islam, Hinduism has made new groups its integral part without any conversion and brought them under one umbrella without annihilating their own faith.

India with History of “NO BLOODY REVOLTION” – While in the past, intolerance of people led to bloody revolutions elsewhere in the world, India kept on adapting itself to changing times. Whereas in the past, other nations had passed through many bloody revolutions like in ancient Greece, Rome or other European countries, and made people to work under the threat of a whip, tolerance in India had prevented people from doing that.  It is because of India’s effort to continuously Internalize the changes and spirit of adapting itself to the changing times, India has entered the modern era without any cultural break.

Conclusion – Traditional living has been an anchor, which has kept the boat of Indian society in safe harbour. Now that the anchor has gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean. 

As Karl Marx remarked that British, “had a double mission in India, one destructive, the other regenerating; the annihilation of the old Asiatic Society and laying the material foundation of Western Society in Asia.” The regenerating character was concerned with social transformation through modern education, English language as a medium of learning and official language, modernization in economic sphere, political unification of the country and laying foundations for many democratic institutions. The reactionary and destructive character was seen in political, economic and social sphere. (Dutt RP, India Today, p476).  Polarization of Indian society on the basis of caste and religion has a close connection with these developments. 

Throughout 20th century, Reformers and many religious organizations like Arya Samaj, Brahmo-Samaj etc., have criticized the mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They laid emphasis on interpreting Vedas in a rational and scientific way. They should try to make religion, again, a bedrock of the value-system. Swami Vivekanand, Swami Dayanand Sarswati (founder of Arya Samaj in  gave a call to Indians ‘go back to Vedas’, and not to be swayed away by Western culture. People should know about their cultural heritage and try to revive, what is good in it. Religion in its pure sense does not lead to discrimination. It does not teach people to hate or divide mankind. People should make sincere efforts to establish a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices. They explained that –

• Knowledge alone is the key to truth.
• Vedas has been conceived through intellectual contemplation and empirical observation and Upanishads (speculative interpretation of Vedas or Mythology) are the creation of human imagination.
• Their rationality is in conformity with the laws of nature.
• No one belongs to any social group because of birth. It is inter-changeable and depends on one’s thoughts and deeds.
• True religion does not discriminate mankind in terms of race, colour, nationality, caste or gender.
• The most noble task of every individual is to work for the enlightenment and uplift the weaker persons.
• The markings of Indian culture are simplicity and solidity.

All over the world, many systems, institutions, structures, principles, and cultures have been evolved from time to time, which created a wave, sweeping entire world with it for some time. But soon, they have become redundant or obsolete. They have been replaced by anti-waves, which have wiped off previous influences. But this saying does not apply to Sanatan Dharma of Hindus. Every time, when it has become weak especially during alien rule, it re-emerged and re-emerged with greater force/strength. C. Rajagopalachari comments “If there is honesty in India today, any hospitality, any charity – any aversion to evil, any love to be good, it is due to whatever remains of the old faith and the old culture”.

Change one must with changing times. Past should not be idolized. Anything, which in light of modern times appears to be ineffective or inefficient should be replaced by a better one. But it will be suicidal to sacrifice something to an increasing passion for change. Changes must be based on constant interpretation of past experiences and opinions.

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[i]  Khan, Democracy in India, pp 4-5.

Seven Social Sins

Seven Social Sins

“Strength does not come from physical capacity. It comes from an indomitable will.” Mahatma Gandhi

Gandhiji, known, as ‘Father of the nation’ was believed that when people go against ethical codes, when values are not strongly held, people respond weakly to crisis and difficulty, society weakens. Moral behaviour, inner strength and will-power are needed more than physical strength to control the serious harm, unethical behaviour of the people, causes. Following are the Seven Social Sins, against which Gandhiji warned the people long ago –  

1. Politics without principles – The word politics, is automatically connected with politicians. It has become common to criticize politicians and label them as corrupt, or use this as an excuse to not participate in politics. In fact, every citizen is with the politics of the nation, either actively or passively. Important is whether people’s participation contributes to strengthening values in politics or not.
2. Business without morals – Ambition is another factor associated with social sins. When one thinks only about one’s own well-being, and justifies almost any action. Personal success becomes an excuse to take unethical action. People, at border line of right and wrong, crosses the ‘Lakshan Rekha’ of ideals, morals and values on the pretext that that they “have to be practical” as well.
3. Well-being without work – Work is not just a way to earn an income; it also gives dignity to people. Living off of other people’s work degrades your character and turns you into a social parasite. Their well-being should be a product of their own effort. When people live without purpose, they don’t tend to feel very good about themselves. They feel insatiable, unsatisfied, meaningless.
4. Education without character – Education/learning is a life-long process and denying this fact leads to another social sin. Educating is more than just instructing, training, cramming knowledge into people’s minds, and making them an expert as if they were a machine. Those, in charge of educating and training people, should be firm in the values that they ingrain. 
5. Science without humanity – Science is supposed to serve humanity in principle. At present, there are many cases, when unethical experiments are being done.
6. Fun without responsibility – It’s completely legitimate to seek pleasure. Everybody has the right to do things that are pleasing to their senses and their soul. But if they occur in excess, the same pleasures can cause a lot of harm. Gandhi had a stoic view on the matter. He believed moderation to be one of the greatest virtues. Having fun responsibly means maintaining balance, rather than letting it become a vice that messes with other social or moral values.
7. Religion without sacrifice – Religion without sacrifice is a social sin because beliefs without action lose most of their value. When you truly believe in something, you should be prepared to give up a lot for it. This principle does not apply to religion alone. Whatever spiritual belief, religious or not, in the mind or heart of people, they should do all the efforts possible, turn it into action.

All these seven sins are in full bloom at present. Seeing the present scenario, Gandhiji advice is more relevant today than thepast. To fight against these Seven Social Sins, people need more than ever, to have moral courage and willpower.

India or Bharat and Hinduism, a religion or a culture?

“Traditional living had been an anchor, keeping our boat in safe harbour. Now that the anchor had gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.”

Recently, sharp debates and discussions are going on in Indian political circle, over the following issues. Some leaders have raised their voice on issues like –

1. What is the need of having many names for India? Does Modi Government intend to change the name of the nation from India to Bharat?
2. Is Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma entitled to be called a religion? Because it is discriminatory in nature and against the principle of Equality and Social Justice.

Both these issues are intertwined. The seeds of these controversies were sown much earlier, and now they have blossomed in full.

Why these controversies? – At present, a “Rat-race” is going on between different political parties, keeping in view the coming elections of Parliament and state legislatures. The purpose is to grab political power and get full control over the treasury of the nation, by hook or crook, to gain maximum political milage in coming elections, and rule the nation for next five years. All the parties are all out to avail maximum advantage of the popularity, India has received recently, within the nation and abroad, from the successful operation of Summit G20, landing the space-rocket on moon, and other developments happening in the spheres of technology and infra-structural sector of the nation.

All the problem starts with the formation of anti-Modi Morcha, naming itself I.N.D.I.A. (Indian, National Developmental Inclusive Alliance), just before the G20 Summit and the upcoming general election for the parliament and state assemblies in 2024.

Leaders of Opposition parties question Modi government why the nameplate read Bharat instead of India, when PM Narendra Modi addressed Global leaders during G20 Summit. Or Why was President of Bharat printed on invitation cards of foreign delegates? Why was ‘Bharat, The Mother of Democracy’ printed on G20 booklet presented to foreign delegates? Does Modi-Government intend to change the official name of the nation, from India to Bharat? Now, sharp debates and discussions are going on over these issues.

It seems by changing its name from UPA to INDIA, opposition parties hoped that whenever there would be any talk about India, within the nation or abroad, or while casting their votes, I.N.D.I.A., their alliance, would remain foremost in people’s minds and they could gain politically the maximum during the coming elections. The hope that credit of recent developments would automatically go to I.N.D.I.A., gets belied. Anti-Modi Morcha now fears that if officially or otherwise, name “Bharat” becomes more popular, they won’t be able to get full advantage of changing the name of the alliance from UPA to I.N.D.I.A.

Being so, Opposition Parties started criticizing that Modi Government has highlighted the name ‘Bharat’, because it wants to change the official name of the nation, from India or to Bharat in near future. Some political leaders have even launched an attack on Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma, saying that Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma (religion) of discriminatory and against the principles of equality and social justice. It is anti-Dalits and pro-Brahmin religion.  It is not a religion at all, but a disease like Dengue, Malaria and Corona. Therefore, Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma should be abolished. It has sparked discussions and debates now in the political circle all-over India.

In reply, Party in power defends government stand by saying that the main purpose of summit G20 summit, 2023 has been to acquaint invitee countries about the indigenous culture of India and spread the messages of “Vasudaiva-Kutumbkam”, “One Earth and one family” and “One Family and One Future” all-over the world. These phrases have been drawn from the text of ancient scriptures of India.

Before forming any opinion on these issues, first of all, it is necessary to know

1. What India is? And
2. What term, religion, means?

What India is?  – Sub-continent India is a wonderful country. It is in the Southern part of Asian Continent. Himalayas separates India from Europe. From one side, it shares land borders with seven countries Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. And on other three sides, there is Bay of Bengal in East, Arabian sea in West, and Indian Ocean in the South. Geographically, India has Himalayan mountains, Indo-Gangetic lowland and Peninsular plateau. All these areas have different climatess, different quantity of rainfall, different quality of soil, different kinds of vegetation, crops and minerals.  Therefore, the people living in different parts of the country differ from each other in their needs, way of living, eating habits etc.

From ancient times, India had established commercial contacts with China, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Roman Empire. It has resulted in the spread of Indian culture, religion, languages, art and architecture abroad.

Indian civilization, one of the earliest civilizations of the world, initially emerged in Indus Valley region. It started around 3300 BCE. India as a nation, has got its name from Indus-river itself. During ancient times, the region beyond Indus-river was called India. It was originally the home of an indigenous tribe called Bharat.

What is the meaning of Religion? – Worry ends, when faith begins for humans. Religion as the belief in a supernatural power that organizes and animates the universe has always been an important part of human ethos. Faith in any religion is a very personal thing.

The ‘Religion’ term originating from the Latin word ‘Relgio’ means ‘restraint’ or ‘bind-together’. It means reverence to God or Gods, careful pondering of divine things, piety.  It is an organized system of beliefs and practices leading to a transcendent spiritual experience. (Religion in ancient world, World History Encyclopedia).

Purpose of religion – In modern World, there are there are several religions, religious bodies and faiths groups (about 4,000 recognized faiths) around the globe. All religions value of selfless service and devotion.  Main purpose of ‘Religion’ is to serve several functions for the society. It is –

• To give meaning and purpose to life,
• To reinforce social unity and stability.
• To control social behavior.
• To promote physical and psychological well-being, and
• To motivate people to work for positive social change.

Major religions of the world – There are 12 major religious groups all-over the world. Out of them, World-over, 75% of people follow one of the five Faiths, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism.  At present, Hinduism (15%) is said to be the oldest religion. It is also the third largest religion (15.2) of the world after Christianity (Christianity 33%) and Islam (24.1%).

Christianity – Earlier, Ancient Europe like elsewhere was also polytheistic. It believed in worshipping multiple gods and goddesses. It included virtually all religions other than Judaism, Christianity and Islam, which share a common tradition of monotheism, the belief in one God. South-Eastern European nations, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, had a very rich collection of the literature, philosophy ideologies including knowledge about “Faith”. These two nations are generally considered to be the birthplaces of Western civilization. Ancient Greece had big influence on Rome due to its impact on philosophy, democracy, science, aesthetics as well as architecture and town planning.

After the death and resurrection of Jesus, Christianity first emerged as a sect of Judaism as practiced in the Roman Province of Judea. The first Christians were all Jews. After AD 380, Christian religion became the predominant religion in Western Europe guiding the course of philosophy, art and science. It saw huge advances in areas like philosophy, medicine, mathematics and urban design.

Europe during medieval period – During medieval times, started the gradual decline of the rich culture and science, philosophy and knowledge of ancient Greece and Rome, because of continuous barbarian invasions, Black death, feudalism and people’s concern for the barest essentials of life. This was the Dark Age for Europe.

Harsh working conditions, cruel child labor, dirty living conditions, long working hours prevailed in Pre-Renaissance European society. Catholic Church became the pivotal force, which dominated the lives of all, Europe Royal Houses, nobility and working class. It demanded people’s unwavering faith in the norms set by the Church.

Renaissance Movement in Europe (between 14th and 17th centuries) – Dark Period was followed by Renaissance movement. Beginning of Renaissance movement marks the transition of the whole world from Middle Ages to Modern Period. It was the beginning of Industrial Revolution. Historical period of Renaissance movement is also called as ‘the Age of Reason and enlightenment’.  This period is famous in history, because it has drastically changed socio-cultural norms, attitudes and practices of European world. Industrial revolution profoundly affected European intellectual life. It has laid foundations of technological innovations, urbanization, scientific discoveries and literature etc. for coming centuries.

The sincere knowledge seekers of European nations did not care for their own comfort inconveniences, and faced all the challenges. They worked hard and sacrificed their time and energy for about two centuries energy to lay the foundation of a modern world based on observation and rationality as well as future development of science and technology. Invention of printing, being one of them, that has helped in the dissemination of ideas from 15th century onwards.

Influence of these developments has been felt everywhere, in literature, philosophy, art, music, politics, science, religion, and other aspects of intellectual inquiry.

The term “Religion” for adhering any faith, itself, originated in Europe during renaissance movement. After renaissance movement, the term religion is being used for organized set of religious beliefs. People increasingly began to see world rationally from a human-centered perspective. They used the term ‘religion’ to distinguish worldly things from religion, spirituality and morality. They fixed the domain of the church. Religion was separated from state business. Idea of secularism emerged, meaning that there should be non-interference in the functioning of any religion by the state.

Islam – Like Christianity, Islam is also a monolithic religion. The start of Islam religion is marked in the year 610, following the first revelation to Prophet Mohammad, last in the line of Judeo-Christian Prophets (ca. 570-632). His followers spread the teachings of Islam throughout the Arabian-peninsula. At present, adherents of Islam constitute the world’s second largest religious group. As of 2010, there are 49 countries, in which Muslims comprise more than 50% of population. Studies of 21^st century suggest that Islam is now the fastest growing major religion in the world.   

Vedic Sanatan Dharma also known as Hinduism – India presents one of the oldest living civilization and culture of the world with a very long, continuous and uninterrupted History, which is intact even today. India has taken thousands of years to grow in its present form.

Hinduism, earlier known as Sanatan Dharma, is generally believed to be the world’s oldest religion and was founded more than 4,000 years ago. Also, it presents one of the continuous, and uninterrupted living cultures and civilizations in the world. Unlike Christianity or Judaism. Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma is compilation of several belief systems. As such, sometimes it is referred the ‘family of religions’ because of its accommodating nature.

The religion of India is Vedic religion, also known as Hinduism. It was the religion of ancient Indo-European speaking peoples, who migrated to entered Indus valley, located in modern day Pakistan around 1500 BCE from the region of present-day Iran, according to Britannica. There, their culture and language merged with the natives of that region and gave birth to the Vedic religion. It gradually evolved into Hinduism between the 6th and 2nd centuries BCE. Vedas became the most sacred literature of Hinduism.

More than anywhere else, Hinduism holds multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There is co-existence of various beliefs and thoughts.

Assaults on Hinduism – During the course of its long jouney, Hinduism has to face many assaults, like –

During Medieval times – With the downfall of Gupta Empire, (known as times of ‘Golden age’ of Hinduism) (320-650 CE) and collapse of Harsha Empire, power became decentralized in India. Several kingdoms emerged and began several invasions during Medieval Period. Continuous invasions of Turks, Afghans, and Mughals (of Gajini and others between 998-1030 AD, establishment of Slave Dynasty 1206-1290, Khilji Dynasty 1290-1320, Tuglak Dynasty 1320-1412 and Mughals rule, Sayyad Dynasty 1414-51, Lodi Dynasty 1451-1526, and Mughals rule from 1526 to 1757 have continuously pressurized Hindus and their religion. Excesses of the rulers throughout turned Hindu society to look inwards and save their identity, values and Dharma. It led them to follow their traditions, rules and rituals strictly, rigidly and blindly.[i]. Gradually, it gave birth to many social evils like superstitions, Sati-Pratha, dowry system, Purdah system, feudalistic attitude extravagance, Band luxurious life-style. Disparity between rulers and ruled increased.

Attack on Hinduism during colonialism – Then came the British Imperial rule. During British rule, two aspects of Hinduism had received a good deal of the attention of rulers.

• Caste system and
• Reluctance of Vedic Dharma to convert people of other religions, on the ground that all religions are valid.

British rulers and missionary schools condemned the caste system, and they enthusiastically applauded the reluctance of Hinduism to convert people of other faiths.

Through modern education system, British succeeded in disassociating Indians from their traditional way of living, classical roots and knowledge. They launched an ideological attack on Hindu practices labelling them as ‘discriminatory’, ‘iniquitous’, ‘exploitative’, ‘oppressive’, ‘barbarous’, ‘uncivilized’, ‘highly stratified’ and ‘responsible for all social evils’, ‘feudalistic attitude’, ‘backward thinking’, ‘whimsical concept of purity and pollution’ and ‘belief in dogmas and superstitions sustained by a unique set of rituals.

Criticism of Hinduism by India leaders before Independence – Criticism of Hinduism and its value system by Westerners has led many prominent political leaders like Mahatma Phule, Ambedkar or Gopal Ganesh, to lose their faith in Hinduism and its value system. They criticized Hinduism for its being based on caste system. According to them Hinduism encourages Brahmans with the help of religion, and treats lower strata of society as lesser human beings, subjugates lower castes, engages them in forced labor, unsavory jobs, imposes many restrictions on them, preventing them from joining the mainstream of the nation.

Recent attack on Hinduism – Recently, some Indian political leaders of leftist parties have launched an attack on the nature of Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma describing its nature as discriminatory. So much and so that one of them compared it with ‘Dengue and Malaria’, while another said, that Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma is not a religion in true sense. It is discriminatory in nature. It is anti-Dalit and pro-Brahmin religion. Therefore, it should be abolished. Such comments have sparked hot discussions and debates all-over India.

The fact that there were times in the past, when after such attacks, Hinduism has become weak for some time. But every time it remerged and whenever it re-emerged, it re-emerged with greater force. Hindu Sanatan Dharma never needs foreign help to rejuvenate itself. It has developed in such a way that it can look inwards and improve upon itself. Most of the times, the Indian society has been able to develop “an attitude of reconciliation rather than refutation, cooperation rather than confrontation and co-existence rather than mutual annihilation.”[i]

Why such a confusion about Hinduism now? – The root cause of such a confusion or criticism about Hindus’ Sanatan Dharma in present days’ political circle is because critics if Hinduism have translated the Sanskrit word ‘Dharma’, literally as Religion. In fact, calling Hinduism merely a religion, is a very narrow understanding of Sanatan Dharma.

Unlike Christianity or Judaism, Hinduism or Sanatan Dharma is compilation of several belief systems. As such, sometimes it is referred the ‘family of religion’. Because of its accommodating nature, Sanatan Dharma has come up to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some adaptions and modifications. At present, there are many religions, faiths, religious groups in India. Followers of all the 12 major religions live here.

Brief history of India – 5000 years old history of India is as following –

Hinduism not merely religion – In fact, Sanatan Dharma of Hindus is not merely a religion in narrow sense of the term.  It is much more than that. Many scholars, philosophers and jurists have repeatedly said that the Sanskrit term ‘Dharma’ is not translatable in English. Hinduism is not merely a religion. It is much more than that. Words like law, righteousness, ethics, morality all together are not enough to give Justice to the meaning of Dharma. The principle of Dharma embraces within itself “religion”, “law”, “duty”, “righteousness”, “morality”, and “conformity with truth”. Along with its being a “religious idea”, Dharma is also a “principle” and a “vision” of an organic society, in which all participating members are independent, yet their role complimentary. It is a collection of traditions, personal experiences, way of living, religious practices and culture of many migrating social groups earlier from land route and later from sea-route. It is one of the most scientific ideologies ever developed anywhere in the world. It is an ideology also, a collection of Philosophy, a culture and way of living to lead a quality of life. has been started after the Colonization under the influence of British rulers.

Evolution of Sanatan Dharma – Sanatan Dharma of Hindus has come into existence much before the term ‘religion’, itself, was coined. The narrow meaning of Dharma, in its present form, was non-existent existent at the time, when Upanishads (Vedic Text, which contains some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) were composed.

Sanatan Dharma or Vedic Religion, is the religion of majority of people, living in India. It is the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted religion, a culture and civilization of the world. Principles of Hindu Sanatan Dharma are as relevant today as it were earlier.

Sanatan Dharma has come into existence around 3300-1300 BCE on Indo-Gangetic plains (in northern parts of India) and matured by 2600-1900 BCE. It has been spread and flourished throughout India during 1500 BC and 500 BC and gradually spread all-over South-east Asia, China, Korea and Japan. Vedic Hindu Dharma has taken centuries to develop. Many knowledgeable persons contributed to its growth from time to time after doing through research work and analysing rationally their personal experience. Hindu culture has entered the modern era without any cultural break.

As India passed through various phases in the past, each and every incoming social group has left its influence on the indigenous culture of Sindh Valley. Multi ethnic migrant groups and tribes came to ancient India in waves. In due course of time, they were assimilated in indigenous Hindu society as its integral parts by giving each one of them a distinct caste name. Hinduism allowed them to follow their faith, beliefs, customs, traditions and way of living, which are intact even today. 

The blending up of incoming social communities with original Dharma of the land has developed into Hinduism or Vedic Sanatan Dharma. It has come down to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some modifications and adaptions.

Sanatan Dharma, most scientific Ideology – Sanatan Dharma (eternal values) in its purest form is one of the most scientific ideologies, ever developed anywhere in the world. It is a magnificent example of scientific division and orderly arrangements of rules, in different branches of human knowledge, in a few words. It covers almost all aspects of human life, be it spiritual, phonetics, literature, arts, medicine, polity, or metrics. Its principles speak of everything, on staying healthy, positive thinking, improving concentration, moral behavior or following path of righteousness. Its rituals are techniques for leading a harmonious life. It is as relevant even today as were in the past.

The sacred knowledge of Vedic Hindu Philosophy has been handed down from times immemorial, by ancient sages, Rishies and Munies to succeeding generations, through verbal transmission. Later on, in written form. 

Foundation pillars of Hinduism – The foundation pillars, which has kept unity and continuity intact are:

Principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma – Together, the principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma have enabled people to lead a quality of life and ensured continuity despite several invasions, migrations and assimilation of a large number of multi ethnic social groups from different parts of the world.

Principle of Varna has given to Indian society, a stable, sustainable social structure, which distributes and organizes performance of various functions, doctrine of Dharma defines duties and vocations of different sections of society on the basis of attitude and aptitude, ensure social harmony and prevent rivalries, competitions and jealousies. Doctrine of Karma prevents cut throat competition by making the inequalities tolerable for an average person.

Spirit of Tolerance – Spirit of tolerance and firm belief in “Live and let others live” or “Vasudhaiva-Kutumbkam” have always been the part of Indian ethos. Tolerance is most evident in the field of religion. Vedas does not prescribe any final absolutes. Even Vedas are not the end for quest of Truth and knowledge. It is a constant non-ending process.

Vedic belief in an all-pervading omnipresent God, multiplicity of God and Goddesses as representing some portion of infinite aspect of the Supreme Being, inspired Hindus to accommodate people of other faiths. Vedic culture concedes validity to all the religions and does not lay strictures against any faith. That is why all the twelve major religions are present and flourishing in India without any restriction.

Tolerance is not confined to religion alone. It is seen everywhere in Indian way of life. Even today, people tolerate the Vote bank politics, which has polarized Indian society on the basis of caste and community, criminalization of politics, corruption, scams and scandals and inefficiency in administrative work or poor law and order situation without much protest.

 Simple and compact life-package of Sanatan Dharma – Simple and compact life-package of Sanatan Dharma nurtures the nature. After a deep study of natural instincts, inherent attributes, natural behavioural pattern of human beings and their basic physical, mental, and spiritual needs, at different stages of life, Sanatan Dharma has developed a simple compact life package in conformity with the forces of nature. It is as relevant at present as it was earlier, in the past. It is applicable to all for all time to come, irrespective of Varna, caste, creed or region. According to it, following are different stages in human life –

• Pre-Ashram stage (Infancy and Childhood) – At this stage, society through family contributes.  individual remains neutral. Task of the family is to lay the foundation of developing the personality of a child (say ipto 5 years) with love and care.
• Stage I, Brahmcharya Ashram (Stage of Learning for an individual) – At this stage, Society is the giver, and individual is recipient. It is a period of strict discipline. Purposeis learning and acquisition of knowledge. For mental and physical discipline Yoga and knowledge play an important role.
• Stage II, Grahasthashram – At this stage, Society is the recipient, individual make contribution. Individual is trustee and Manager of social estate. Individual has direct contact with society and makes direct contribution to society consistent with the dictates of his own knowledge and conscience. the real ground to utilize one’s intellectual and physical capabilities. To indulge one-self in economic activities in order to fulfil one’s dreams and ambitions, to keep direct contact with the society. This stage of life presents to individual opportunities to practice and cultivate all the three Dharmas – Artha, karma and Moh (fulfilment of duties and financial and material success and full enjoyment of life).
• Stage III, Vanaprastha Ashram – It advises a person to prepare himself for loosening earthly bonds. It advises him to achieve salvation through good deeds and social service. Task assigned to this group is teaching Dharma and extended care.
• Stage IV, Renunciation or Old age – It is a phase of resignation and renunciation. A person is completely free from any obligation. Realization of Dharma and wisdom is the aim. It advises individual to achieve complete detachment and lead a simple life.

Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and men were closer to nature, people could follow the Sanatan Dharma without much hassle.  But in modern times, life has become quite difficult, materialistic and complex. Moral values have been eroded. Now-a-days, most of the people are running blindly after money, power, position, name and fame.

Strength of Sanatan Dharma – The strength of Hinduism/Sanatan Dharma is proved by the majority of its followers in modern India. The strength of Hinduism/Sanatan Dharma is proved by the facts –

• Despite centuries of Mughal’s and British rule, over 75% of Indian population is Hindu,
• Had it become obsolete, it would have given place to other religions and culture, as has happened elsewhere in the world,
• Instead, it has influenced all other religions found in India.
• Not only within India, but principles of Hindu Philosophy have been a source of inspiration for the whole universe, spreading the message of developing peace, harmony, compassion and eternal values of Humanity. Scholars of many countries have learnt Sanskrit, interpreted its principles rationally and translated them in their own respective languages.

Don Martindale (1915-1985), leading American sociologist, a prominent scholar and teacher, has rightly said about Hinduism that it has “succeeded in doing in India, what no state, no conqueror and no economy was able to do, the establishment of a single unified system of society throughout the whole of India, a system of society, which was able to comprise a greater range of local differences in a single system than any society has previously accomplished.” (Don Martindale, India since 1947, p 39).

Following are the strengths of Hinduism and its principle of Varna, followed by the caste system –

• Sanatan Dharma nurtures the nature.
• Adopted the path of assimilation – The beauty of Sanatan Dharma of Hindus is that it has adopted the path of assimilation, instead of repulsing any trend vehemently or allowing others to sweep its established culture off its roots. It does not believe in conversion. It does not believe in converting people of other faiths or forcing its own beliefs, practices or customs on others. In the past, it has assimilated numerous social groups at their will, migrating from different parts of the world. Not only assimilated, but carefully nurtured and preserved the faith, culture and way of living of incoming social group, coming to its fold. It has given Hindu society, a syncretic character, a pluralistic tradition and an absorptive nature of internalizing alien influences. prescribes
• Neti-Neti – Hinduism believes that even Vedas are not the end. Creation and quest for knowledge is a constant process without any beginning or an end. It does not prescribe any final absolutes. Search of knowledge and truth is a never-ending process, “Neti-Neti”.
• Detachment – According to Bhagwat Gita, senses are superior to the body. Mind is superior to senses. Knowledge or intellect is still superior to the mind. Soul is above all. (BG3.42, Chapter 3, verse 42). There are two options before human beings, to develop positive mindset/intellect for taking right action, or have negative mindset, act with weak mind bridled with desire and based on emotion, impulse, hatred, greed and selfishness. Positive mind/intellect can be developed through meditation, practice and continue to do their duty without focussing on fruits of their actions. Renunciation of fruits of action automatically brings peace of mind and contentment.
• Gives importance to tolerance, Self-discipline, self-reliance and self-respect –Hinduism lays stress on tolerance, truth (Satyamev Jayte), Ahimsa (non-violence) and peace. In the past, when people were compelled to work under the threat of a whip, their intolerance led to bloody revolutions, especially in ancient Greece, Rome, or other European countries. However, tolerance of people has enabled Hinduism to survive in modern India as well, without any cultural break. It has prevented people from following the path of violence, and taught them to make efforts to adapt themselves with changing times.
• Concept of purity and impurity of Hinduism is based on considerations of self-discipline, self-restraint, hygiene and cleanliness. While ranking different varna or castes, Hinduism gives importance to standard of morality, knowledge and spirituality. Every section of society is advised to lead a self-restraint and self-disciplined life in all respect, be it in the matter of daily routine, occupation or inter caste relationship. The higher the caste within a Varna, the purer it is considered, and greater are the self-restrictions on its behavior through rituals. The system of each caste having a specific position in the society and a specific work to do with its rights and duties boosted the morale of the people and promoted social equilibrium and solidarity.
• Based on vision of organic society – Hinduism is based on the “vision” of an organic society. Society as an organic body needs services of all its constituents equally. It has assigned important social functions, needed for the growth of the whole society, to different sections of society on the basis of their attitude and aptitude. All the parts are equally important and indispensable, need equal attention for and care for balanced growth of the whole system. Coordinated functioning of all parts together keeps whole system fit and alive. The system has evolved its structures and systems leisurely and kept on coping with the slow changes, time brought in. Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether different from what exists today. It is still in a transient phase. It is different in context of village, locality, region or religion.
• Inter-dependence in social life – Inter-dependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life are the intrinsic features of Hinduism, making each section of society self-sufficient and capable to fulfil all the needs of its members. Hindu festivals like Holi, Deepawali, or Dussehra inspire people to share moments of joy. 
• Caste system being used as a mechanism to assimilate new social groups – Don Martindale says, that through caste system, India has simultaneously accommodated “itself to an almost endlessly varied system of semi-autonomous community and at the same time bring considerable unity, harmony and condition of peace.” It “succeeded in wielding an enormously varied plurality of semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places and adopting themselves to many different conditions into a single system of society…” Caste system has provided a mechanism, through which migrating new social groups could join the main-stream of the Hinduism in due course of time, without conversion. Each new incoming social group was assigned a separate caste name. This way, a large number of discrete tribes, various social groups and associations, have been internalized and preserved under one umbrella, i.e., Hinduism. Hinduism has not only accommodated and bound migrating groups into a single cultural system, but has given freedom to continue their faith, way of living and traditions.
• Not much disparity – Varna system, followed by Principles of Hinduism has been so conceived by the genius sages that there is hardly any room for any Varna to consider itself, as being placed in greater or lesser disadvantageous position with reference to another. The relative standing of four Varnas is more or less fixed. But Hinduism does not create any nationwide hierarchy of castes. No caste has ever taken an all-India character, before the Census operations started be British rulers. There is not much disparity between different castes or between urban and rural people. The tropical climate of the country compelled the people to the distribution of surplus, as it was difficult to store anything for long. The system has placed all the individuals, within a caste group, rich or poor, on the same footing. All members of a caste have similar rights and duties, similar thinking process, similar customs, language, food habits, domestic routine, and style of dress. Elders of different castes are responsible to maintain discipline and help weak, poor or helpless caste-fellows. Tropical climate of the country compelled the people to the distribution of surplus, as it was difficult to store anything for long.
• Ranking – Ranking of different sections of society or Varnas groups has been done according to nature and social relevance of their work, contribution of their work for social subsistence, and efforts required to perform their duties, and amount of self-restraint/self-discipline, they exercise, their relative purity, morality, knowledge and spiritual standards. Considerations of self-discipline, hygiene and cleanliness on the basis of climatic conditions of the region were also given importance, while ranking different castes. The concepts of forward castes or backward castes, disparities between different sections of society and exploitation of the weak were almost non-existent earlier.
• Acted as a shield – During medieval India, caste system was a major force for failure of Islam, Christianity and other religions to make headway even after mass conversion.
• Hinduism and its Sanatan Dharma, a classic example of Unity in Diversity – India comprises people of different ethnic, religious, castes, linguistic and regional identities. Despite of following diversities, different identities have been living together for centuries and present a mosaic culture. The diversity made the divide easy.  However, the forces of unity have always been stronger than the divisive forces. It is for this reason that India occupies a special place in the global society.
• Geographical Diversity – Geographically, India has Himalayan mountains, Indo-Gangetic lowland and Peninsular plateau. All these areas have different climate, different quantity of rainfall, different quality of soil, different kinds of vegetation, crops and minerals.  Therefore, the people living in different parts of the country differ from each other in their needs, way of living, eating habits etc.

• Ethnic Diversity – During its very long journey so far, India has assimilated different multi-ethnic communities into its mainstream. In the past, various multi-ethnic migrant groups came to India in waves from different parts of the world, settled down here, and finally, willingly merged into the mainstream of Bharat. Such as Negritos from Africa, Australoids considered to be the original builders of Indus Valley Civilization, Mongoloids coming from China, Mediterreans believed to be the bearers of the earliest form of Hinduism coming from Southwest Asia around 2000 BC, Amphizoids, Denaris, Arminids coming from South Europe, and Nordics etc. These identities lived together for centuries. India has never destroyed the faith, way of living or culture of incoming communities. Instead in due course of time, it assimilates them into the mainstream of Indian Society as its integral parts. Their assimilation in Hindu society resulted in –
• Linguistic Diversity.
• Occupational diversity and
• Cultural diversity.

• Cultural Diversity – India is a wonderful country. It is a classic example of Unity in Diversity.  The cultural diversity of India is based on –
• Demographic Diversity based on Principle of Varna followed by caste system.
• Religious diversity. 

Demographic Diversity based on Principle of Varna followed by caste system – Hinduism follows the Vedic Principle of Varna for stratifying Indian society followed by caste system unlike western societies. It has given a distinguished identity to Hindu society. Vedic principle of Varna has been conceptualized, originated and practiced in India. It has given a distinguished identity to Hindu society. It has classified Indian society on the basis of attitude, aptitude and occupation, into four groups. Varnas has always been four, Brahmins (intellectuals), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas, (business community) and Shudras (manual workers). It puts individuals in one of these groups on the basis of their attitude, aptitude and occupation.

Origin of Caste system – The number of these Varnas has always been four. As the number of various racial, tribal, occupational and various migrant social groups from different parts of the world, coming in waves in India, via land routes, increased, Varna system gave birth to Caste System. Numerous castes, sub-castes and sub-sub castes emerged within each Varna.

Perhaps, the first faint trace of caste is to be found in the careful cataloguing of traders and professions in later Vedic literature. Many traders were organized into guilds around 5^th century AD, in which, some authorities have seen the origin of commercial castes. These can be seen as the castes in making. Even up to 7^th century AD, people showed no clear knowledge of the existence of castes. Huan Tsang, in the Seventh century was well aware of the existence of Varna, but not of castes. Ever, the number of castes, at present is around 1100 + in India.

As the number of various racial, tribal, occupational and various migrant social groups from different parts of the world, coming in waves in India, via land routes, increased, Varna system gave birth to Caste System. Numerous castes, sub-castes and sub-sub castes emerged within each Varna.

In modern world, understanding of caste, element of caste has been high-lighted and mis-interpreted, and element of system has been considerably suppressed. Following are the strong points of caste system

Diversity based on religion – Assimilation of multi-ethnic communities and Sanatan Dharma’s nature of allowing them to preserve their distinct beliefs, dialects, values, customs, way of living and traditions has resulted in religious diversity. At present, more than anywhere else, Hinduism holds multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There is co-existence of various beliefs and thoughts.

Main religious groups in India – Indian sub-continent holds a unique status in the world because of the diversity of its religious beliefs and practices. It is the birthplace of four major religions of the world, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Main religious groups in India are –

Group	% of population in 2011	% of population in 1991
Hindus	79.8	81.53
Muslims	14.2	12.61
Christians	2.3	2.32
Sikhs	1.7	1.94
Buddhist	0.7	0.77
Other religions	–  –  –	0.38
Religion not stated	–	0.05

These religions can be grouped as –

1. Religions generated within the land of India, like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.
2. Religions of diverse migrating or foreign communities like Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism etc.

Out of them, Hindu’s, Mughals’ and Christian’s religions have received substantial state patronage for a sufficient long time.

Mosaic Culture of India – The composite culture of India has come up to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some adaptions and modifications. It grew out of influence, intermixing, refinement of ideologies of different religions. At present, there are many religions, faiths, religious groups in India. Followers of all the 12 major religions live here.

Each and every religion, existing in modern India has been immensely influenced by Vedic Sanatan Dharma. Sanatan Dharma has also absorbed good points of other faiths. Together, they have enriched the composite culture of India. Various existing religions in India and their influence on each other, are as follows –

Hinduism/Vedic Sanatan Dharma – Hinduism, also known as Sanatan Dharma or Vedic Religion, is the religion of majority of people, living in India. Principles of Hindu Sanatan Dharma are as relevant today as it were earlier. It is the oldest, continuous and uninterrupted religion, a culture and civilization of the world. It has come into existence much before the term ‘religion’, itself, was coined. The narrow meaning of Dharma, in its present form, was non-existent existent at the time, when Upanishads (Vedic Text, which contains some of the central religious concepts of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism) were composed.

Vedic Sanatan Dharma is the religion of majority of Indians. It could well be called a natural response of many small and primitive social groups of people, who were forced by the circumstances to come to terms with a more civilized, advanced and well-organized social system of Indus Valley civilization, every respect, be it its social structure, philosophy, way of living or culture. Scholars regard Vedic culture as a fusion or synthesis of four major denominations of Hinduism (Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism and Sanatan tradition) with various Indian cultures, (having diverse roots and no specific founder).

Buddhism and Jainism – Buddhism and Jainism, the two earliest unorthodox religions were emerged in Indian soil, but after Vedic culture, with certain basic differences. These religions influence the thought, moral and life style of Indian people.  Buddhism attracted equally the elite as well as the lower strata of Hindu society.  The main contribution of Buddhism to Indian culture is an attempt to draw the attention of people towards the harsher effects of the caste system, sympathetic attitude towards lesser human beings and system of organized education.  Major contribution of Jainism is the principle of non-violence.

Dravidian culture – The culture of South is greatly influenced by Hinduism. After the sudden disappearance of Indus valley culture, Dravidian culture flourished in South under the rule of Cholas, Pallavs, Satavahanas, Chalukyas, Rashrakutas, Kakatiyas, Hoysalas beyond Vindhya Hills in the Southern part of India. Its most characteristic features have been its town planning, advanced social system, industry and trade. Hinduism was the state religion of most of the South Indian Kingdoms earlier. Hindhus, in South India, are followers of various Hindu Branches like Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Brahmanism, and others. South India is famous for many greatest Hindu temples, built in South India during Ancient and Medieval India.

Islamic culture – After the tenth century, under Muslim rule, Islam has influenced the Indian culture substantially. Its influence could be seen in the rejection of elaborate rituals and caste pretensions. It has preached a simple path of faith, devotion, brotherly love and fellowship.  With the growing political strength of Muslims, the need for mutual understanding and communal harmony gave rise to Sufi tradition of Islam and Bhakti movement of Hindus. Both these emphasized the need for mutual appreciation, tolerance and goodwill.  Like Buddhism, Islam also provided an alternative to people, wishing to opt out the caste system.

British Culture – Eighteenth century onwards, the British culture influenced the Indian way of life substantially both positively and negatively. Access to modern education, Western literature and philosophy has given Indians understanding of liberal and humanitarian ideas of the West. It produced many great leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Ferozeshah Mehta, Gokhale, Gandhi, Jinnah, Ambedkar, Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Moti Lal Nehru, Jawahar Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Patel and many more.

Missionaries converted many people from the lower strata in to Christianity.  British rulers divided the Indian population on the basis of religion and caste. British rulers have given to India many democratic institutions like Parliament, bureaucracy, concepts like rule of law, unified nationality, a common currency, a common Judiciary etc. They started industrialization in India. They have also given impetus to social progress and brought many reforms.

A section of educated Indian society has been so much impressed by the alien culture that it developed a complex about the primitiveness of Indian society, and tried to improve the mindset of Indian society with the help of British rulers and Christian missionaries.

Many Reformers and religious organizations advised people to revive their own rich ancient culture and not to be swayed away by the glamour and materialism of western culture. Amongst them were most prominent were Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayanand, Prarthana Sabha, Rama Krishna Mission, founded by Swami Vivekanand to reveal to the world Indian Philosophy and culture. Reformers and National leaders welcomed the rationality and other good features of Modern English culture, but wished to remain firmly rooted to the Indian Culture.  They advised people to eradicate social evils like Sati, Polygamy, child marriage, un-touchablity and many superstitions prevalent at that time without foreign intervention.  Emphasis was laid on education and science.  Brahma Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1928, inspired the people of Bengal, UP, Punjab, Madras and other provinces, to form similar organizations and interpret religion rationally. They talked about the superiority of Hindu Vedic culture and gave the call for ‘Go Back to Vedas’, as Vedas were to them the source of all knowledge and truth.

The wonderful process of assimilation and fusion of all these religions and cultures has been a continuous process of the India civilization.  Initially, blending up with original Indus Valley Dharma with Aryans’ developed Hinduism or Vedic Sanatan Dharma. It has come down to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession, with some modifications and adaptions. Then a major cultural synthesis took place during 6th and 10th century, between Vedic Hindu culture, Buddhism and Dravidian culture.  Another assimilation was seen after the 10th century, when the thinking of Arabs, Turks and Afghan, mainly guided by reason, influenced Indian thought. Sufi and Bhakti movements are examples of this. These two sects taught the people to love and respect all human beings irrespective of caste or creed. These also brought changes in the nature of mutual understanding, communal amity and accommodation.  Once again, during the period between 18th century to 20th century, a major cultural synthesis took place with modernization and industrialization ushered in by the British.  All the sects present in India, whether foreign or indigenous, have been influenced greatly by Hindu thinking, practices and systems.  It contributed to the cultural richness of India.  Such flexibility is not seen in the West.  When Christianity broke away from Judaism, it departed totally from the common cultural traditions. The present crisis between the followers of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Middle East in Israel and its neighboring countries is a burning example of religious intolerance.

How can it be expected that the Western world and their followers, who are deeply influenced by their ideologies can understand and appreciate Sanatan Dharma of Hindus.

Westernization of Indian society? – Ever since 1990s, the influence of advanced Western nations, on Indian people especially the youth is continuously increasing. It has impacted the life-style, ideas, and culture of Indians both in positive and negative ways. Modern educated Indians are deeply influenced by industrial, technological, economic progress of Western nations, as well as their music, food habits, language law. They appreciate law-and-order situation, job-opportunities for talented youth and work-culture that prevail in advanced Western countries. They prefer to go abroad, to greener pastures and get settled there. Those, who live within India celebrate with more enthusiasm western festivals like Valentine-day or Halloween etc.

Why Western World Mystified? – Western world and followers of Western way of life are mystified by the amazing pluralities and unique social structure of India based on caste. Because –

• Basis of stratification – While in Western world, usually anthropologists, historians and sociologists identify ‘class’, as universal basis of stratification of Western societies, Indian society stratifies Indian society into 4 Varnas, followed by caste system, on the basis of attitude and aptitude.
• Practiced exclusively in India – Stratification on the caste/Varna system has been conceptualized, originated and practiced exclusively in India. It has given a distinguished identity to Indian society.
• Power and social status associated with wealth – In materialistic Western societies, wealth has always been associated with power, authority and social status. In India, its Caste system has separated wealth from status, power from authority, pursuit and achievement in knowledge from temptations of worldly comforts.
• Ranking – Ranking of different social groups is done on the basis knowledge, discipline and moral standards, and not on the basis of material success, or control of power.
• Stress on duties rather than rights – Whereas, Western cultures have grown around the idea of `Rights‘,  Hinduism give more importance to “duty, tolerance and sacrifice”. Emphasis on duty usually makes a person or a group humble and tolerant. Its helps people to adjust themselves, without much difficulty, to most drastic changes. India has even, achieved its freedom in a peaceful manner under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi.
• No conversion – Unlike Christianity or Islam, Hinduism has made new groups its integral part without any conversion and brought them under one umbrella without annihilating their own faith.

India with History of “NO BLOODY REVOLTION” – While in the past, intolerance of people led to bloody revolutions elsewhere in the world, India kept on adapting itself to changing times. Whereas in the past, other nations had passed through many bloody revolutions like in ancient Greece, Rome or other European countries, and made people to work under the threat of a whip, tolerance in India had prevented people from doing that.  It is because of India’s effort to continuously Internalize the changes and spirit of adapting itself to the changing times, India has entered the modern era without any cultural break.

Conclusion – Traditional living has been an anchor, which has kept the boat of Indian society in safe harbour. Now that the anchor has gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean. 

As Karl Marx remarked that British, “had a double mission in India, one destructive, the other regenerating; the annihilation of the old Asiatic Society and laying the material foundation of Western Society in Asia.” The regenerating character was concerned with social transformation through modern education, English language as a medium of learning and official language, modernization in economic sphere, political unification of the country and laying foundations for many democratic institutions. The reactionary and destructive character was seen in political, economic and social sphere. (Dutt RP, India Today, p476).  Polarization of Indian society on the basis of caste and religion has a close connection with these developments. 

Throughout 20th century, Reformers and many religious organizations like Arya Samaj, Brahmo-Samaj etc., have criticized the mumbo-jumbo of rituals and superstitions created by some selfish people to entangle the ignorant and poor masses. They laid emphasis on interpreting Vedas in a rational and scientific way. They should try to make religion, again, a bedrock of the value-system. Swami Vivekanand, Swami Dayanand Sarswati (founder of Arya Samaj in  gave a call to Indians ‘go back to Vedas’, and not to be swayed away by Western culture. People should know about their cultural heritage and try to revive, what is good in it. Religion in its pure sense does not lead to discrimination. It does not teach people to hate or divide mankind. People should make sincere efforts to establish a social order based on Vedic teachings and practices. They explained that –

• Knowledge alone is the key to truth.
• Vedas has been conceived through intellectual contemplation and empirical observation and Upanishads (speculative interpretation of Vedas or Mythology) are the creation of human imagination.
• Their rationality is in conformity with the laws of nature.
• No one belongs to any social group because of birth. It is inter-changeable and depends on one’s thoughts and deeds.
• True religion does not discriminate mankind in terms of race, colour, nationality, caste or gender.
• The most noble task of every individual is to work for the enlightenment and uplift the weaker persons.
• The markings of Indian culture are simplicity and solidity.

All over the world, many systems, institutions, structures, principles, and cultures have been evolved from time to time, which created a wave, sweeping entire world with it for some time. But soon, they have become redundant or obsolete. They have been replaced by anti-waves, which have wiped off previous influences. But this saying does not apply to Sanatan Dharma of Hindus. Every time, when it has become weak especially during alien rule, it re-emerged and re-emerged with greater force/strength. C. Rajagopalachari comments “If there is honesty in India today, any hospitality, any charity – any aversion to evil, any love to be good, it is due to whatever remains of the old faith and the old culture”.

Change one must with changing times. Past should not be idolized. Anything, which in light of modern times appears to be ineffective or inefficient should be replaced by a better one. But it will be suicidal to sacrifice something to an increasing passion for change. Changes must be based on constant interpretation of past experiences and opinions.

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[i]  Khan, Democracy in India, pp 4-5.

Institution of Family

Reform, Perform and Transform IV

“Traditional living had been an anchor, keeping our boat in safe harbor. Now that the anchor had gone and the boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.”

                                                                                           Vijay Lakshmi Pundit

“A great relationship is about two things, first find out similarities and second, respect the differences.”

Introduction – At present, institution of family is gradually losing its sheen. It is passing through a tough time, because of modernization, industrialization, mechanization, and other developments in the field od science and technology, which try to make life easier than earlier. Modernity should help people to make a living but not a life. Inted it makes them impatient, insensitive and intolerant, and pushes them towards cut-throat competition.

Decline of traditional way of life and too many changes happening in too little time have adversely affected the institution of family. Urbanization, materialism, consumerism, feminism, and desire for more and quick money have made individuals, irrespective of their gender, self-centered and right-conscious. It has given rise to totalitarian ideologies, dishonesty, chasing money blindly, brain drain or creating unbridgeable generation gap. Circumstances have compelled both husband and wife to work for paid jobs. It makes both of them very busy. They hardly get enough time to pay attention or care for well-being of their family members, dependents or friends.

What is family? – Aristotle has said, if a man does not live with men or amongst men, then surely, either he is a god or a beast. System of “Living together” of two or more persons under one roof is the beginning of a family.  They may be related to each other by birth, marriage or adoption.

Living together leads to its progress and working together brings happiness, satisfaction and prosperity. For developing harmonious relationship within family, feelings of caring, sharing and loving each other needs to be developed. Happiness in life depends to a great extent on Quality of family relationship

There is “No choice, No returns. No exchanges” in matter birtn within a particular family. Neither time of the birth changes, nor his destiny or society. Only thing, one can do with fast changing times is to select his/her priorities, values and systems.

Family-support is always there behind a person. Everybody feels safe and secure within a family. Sharing of joys with family members and near and dear ones doubles the happiness. Similarly sharing one’s worries or sorrows lessens the mental strain.  Desire for name, fame or money can bring temporary pleasure, but does not give real happiness.

Protects physical and mental health of individuals – Family creates a strong foundation for emotional as well as physical well-being. It not only protects their bodies but protects their brain as well. When institution of family becomes weak, mental and physical health deteriorates. Quite often, a person goes back to his/her family after day-long hard work and unwinds, rejuvenates, and re-energizes there.

In traditional societies, institution of Marriage starts a family-life. In marriage, what He or She gets in marriage, is honest/responsible life-time companion, who from time to time behaves as an encourager, practical motivator, inspirer, empathizer, challenger, moderator (especially when one becomes biased because of his/her blood relations), a good listener etc. life-log companion. The couple trust each other.  Families can be patriarchal or matriarchal on the basis of authority. There are following types of families existing in modern times:

• Extended family
• Joint family,
• Nuclear family,
• Same sex family,
• Single parent family,
• Stepfamily
• Grand-parents family

With marriages rate down and divorce rates up, cases of children, growing up under the care of single parent family are continuously rising. In such cases, especially single mothers have to face many kinds of problems. Such as –

• Difficulties in getting employment due to non-friendly policies of job-market in giving employment to single women, especially single mothers.
• Lesser pay packets.
• Financially constraints to meet all the expenses alone.

Characteristics of a family – Characteristics of a family are:

• Acceptance, loyalty and support to each other,
• Form of marriage or a mating relationship,
• Common habitation,
• System of interaction and communication,
• Togetherness. Sense of belonging, Concerns with Emotions, emotional bias
• Clear expectations.
• Free and frank communication and interaction
• Discipline, Patience/tolerance for each other.
• Togetherness. Team-spirit, loving, caring and sharing with each-other.
• Economic support along with mental and physical wellness.

The basic functions of family – The basic functions of family are, to –

• Creates life-long comfort zone for all its members.
• Health care.
• Natural and informal centre of learning skills and educating.
• Regulate sexual access and activity,
• Provide an orderly context for procreation.
• Nurture and socialize children.
• Ensure economic stability. And
• Gives an identity in society and ascribe social status.

Is really the institution of family losing its sheen? – At present, Institution of family has started losing its sheen. Earlier, 4-5 generations lived together under one roof. Today, mostly nuclear family system is preferred, which allows only husband, wife and their dependent children to live under one roof.  Familial responsibilities are being outsourced continuously to companies, Governmental or non-governmental institutions, elderly care to old age homes, childcare to day-care/cheche, education and training to school and training centres, health care to hospitals etc. Institution of marriage, itself, is on the verge of breakdown. ‘Home, Sweet Home’ does not mean just a bedroom.

Institution of family America and India

Family-structure in Western societies – Western societies are the classic example of the breakdown of the institution of Family. Their progressive modern way of living may be a lesson to all. Some Economists of 1980s had warned the world about the challenges, that institution of family is facing. But very few people paid any attention to it. Eating outside has become fashionable among modern, educated and middle-class families. Eating outside causes mental and health problems. It is susceptible to infection and unnecessary expenditure. Physical health and mental health are necessary for happiness and prosperity. These developments have led to the almost extinction of American families.

Gone are the days of extended family, joint family or nuclear family there. Now is the time of live-in relationships (co-habitation, where couple lives together in sexual relationship without marriage), single-parents-households (with marriage rates going down, and divorce-rates up), reconstituted families or living with stepfamilies.

It is said that in US, women make up 15% of single households, men 12% of single family, 19%homes are owned by Dad or Mom only. 6% are in living-together relationships. 41% babies are born to unwed women. About 50% of first marriages end in divorce, 67% of second marriages and 74% of third marriages.

There, the institution of family has lost much of its sheen. Some of the reasons are increasing trend of materialism and consumerism due to industrialization, developments in science and technology, both the couples working formally outside the home, geographical and occupational mobility due to urbanization and brain-drain. 

In India –The situation in India is a little different so far. Up till 20^th century, institution of family has played a big role in India. Living of 4-5 generations under one roof under one roof was quite common. Values and systems of family life have been deeply influenced by eternal value system Sanatan Dharma. Institutions of marriage and families are still rooted in its Sanatan Dharma.

Historical background of the institution of family in Inda – Structure of family has taken different shades with changing times and places. Now its character is different in the context of village, locality, region or religion. The institution of family has been evolved in a natural way over thousands of years.

Pastoral Tribal Society – Beginning of the institution of family can be traced from the times of pastoral tribal society. Pastoral Tribal Society was nomadic or semi nomadic and egalitarian. Institutions that existed at that time were family, clan, village, tribe and a group of tribes.

Agricultural Society – When Pastoral tribal society transformed into a settled agricultural society sometime during 6th century BC. Practice of cultivation, rise of crafts and iron tools changed the shape of society.

Initially, a simple class division existed in the social structure, nobility and the ordinary tribesmen.  Intermixing with Aryans gave rise to the division of society into four Varna on the basis of their work or occupations, later on with caste system.

About fifth century BCE, trade especially of metals, fine textiles, salt, pottery and always, horses flourished. New commercial classes emerged. Such a system fostered greater personal freedom and mobility, nurturing individual as well as social groups – the traders, the shopkeeper, the artisan, or the government official. Pastoral chiefdoms gave way to hierarchically ordered settlements organized into states. The emergent system recognized the authority of village, guild, family and provincial custom…  (Wendy Doniger, The Hindus an Alternative History, pp 165-166)

The first faint trace of caste is to be found in the careful cataloguing of traders and professions in later Vedic literature. Many traders were organized into guilds around 5th century AD, in which some authorities have seen the origin of commercial castes. Up to 7th century AD, people showed no clear knowledge of the existence of castes. Zhuan Tsang, in the Seventh century, was aware of the existence of Varna, but not of castes. Later on, instead of Varna, caste became a dominant factor, a natural unit of Hindu society, running through the entire fabric of its social structure.

Agricultural society leisurely evolved its structures and systems over about 2000 years and kept on coping with the slow changes, time brought in. System of possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started. Institutions of kings or head of different groups emerged to protect their groups and to collect surplus yields of farmers.   The power of kings gradually increased.

Caste system has provided a mechanism, by which numerous discrete tribes could be taken up as entire communities into the society. It came into existence, when numerous racial and other social groups – be it racial, immigrants, locals, tribal or professional desired to join the main-steam of the nation and be an integral part of their cultural system. It took thousands of years to evolve. It was done cordially through caste-system at different points of time.

Values, systems and way of living of various newly joining groups have been preserved and internalized within the whole. It had created a plural society. The beauty of the system was that the main society as a whole remained stable, even while offering place to new groups (be it racial, social, occupational, or religious) within the mainstream. [i]

Basham says, Caste system may well be called a natural response to many small and primitive groups of people, who were forced to come to terms, with a more advanced economic and social system.  Each group maintained its own rules, regulations, customs, ways of life and controlled the conduct of its members. Different castes found their place under a Varna. This way, with changing times, institutions of family, extended family, Kula, Caste and religion progressed in the past in a natural way. [i] Institutions of extended family and joint families were common during this period. Developments were in conformity with time and forces of nature, which affected the circumstances of the people.

Sanatan Dharma (a compact life package) – Keeping in view the felt needs of the people at different stages of life, in conformity with time and forces of nature, which affects circumstances of human beings, Sanatan Dharma has formulated a scheme. It is applicable to all, irrespective of the Varna, caste or creed for all time to come. Even today, it is as relevant as it was earlier.

Of all the stages of life, Sanatan Dharma gives a high place of honour to family-life. While offering opportunities to householder for full enjoyment of life, he is liable to make contribution and society becomes recipient. It establishes direct contact of a person with the rest of society. It means that He is responsible for proper management, care, financial help and needs of his dependents, which include elders, children, members of extended family and strangers in need of help. Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and people were closer to nature, they could follow Sanatan Dharma without much hassle.  But as the atmosphere has become more complex and moral values have eroded, it is difficult to observe it sincerely.

Institution of Family in Modern times – An individual is a natural member of a family. Family has always been an integral part of extended family, extended family of Kula, Kula, clan (Vish) and tribe of a Jana of Jati (Caste).  In this way, family extended family, Kula, Caste and religion are the fundamental social institutions for all.

Family widens a person’s social radius. It gives inner strength and confidence to accept the challenges and make efforts to come over it. A person gets recognition, solid base and importance in his/her private and occupational life.   

Extended family – System of extended families living together in the same local area is a thing of past. They are scattered. Causes of disintegration of extended families are –

• Industrialization,
• Urbanization,
• Education,
• Freedom to Women, earlier they were illiterate & confined to kitchen.
• Impact of western
• Changes in marriage system,
• Over population.

In modern India, it gave way to two types of family system, joint families and nuclear families.

Joint family – Joint family consists of grand-parents, parents and their children, who live in the same house under one roof. Salient features of joint families are –

• Large in size,
• Joint property,
• Togetherness, common kitchen and living together brings happiness, protection and growth in the family and builds confidence.
• Common worship.
• Sanatan Dharma gives a clear vision of each one’s rights and duties.
• Close blood ties.
• More economic-friendly. With multiple earning individuals, income of the family adds up.
• Head of the family responsible to keep discipline within family. His words are final. Dependent members are answerable to the head of the family.

In modern times, joint families have become unpopular, because of –

• Conflicts or family quarrels over unequal distribution of work at home and personnel clashes between women,
• Heartburning over family property, its income and expenditure,
• Loss of privacy.
• Stressful for weak women,
• Young mothers are deprived of taking decisions for the future of their child.
• Child marriage.

Sense of dependence – Sence of dependence kills not only the self-respect of a person but freedom to take one’s own decisions and conscience also. As compared to joint family system, nuclear family system gives more freedom to individuals.

Nuclear Family System – Traditional Nuclear family can be seen as dominant form of family these days. It consists of a husband-wife and their children.

Advantages

• Builds confidence and gives opportunities for personality development to all.
• Women is empowered to take her own decisions.
• Smaller families, lesser expenditure/cost of living.
• It creates a stronger emotional bond between parents and children. Allows better communication between them.
• Parents can pay more attention to the education, training, extracurricular activities and career prospects of their children.
• Children get tension-free atmosphere to earn good scores in schools.
• Nuclear families make children more independent and responsible.
• Allows better communication between family members.

Disadvantages – Average incomes of have risen, but different kinds of difficulties are also up, which are hindering smooth functioning of nuclear-family, like

• Instead of arranged marriages, love marriage is the present trend. It has brought many changes in family structure like changes in marital roles, bias in favour of Her family and no tolerance for in-laws-family. His old parents have no option other than to live on their own independently or go to old homes.
• Quite often, isolation produces tensions and leads children glued to television/social media, no attachment for near relatives, no respect for elders, negative behaviour, more peer pressure, juvenile delinquency and other juvenile problems etc.
• Attracted towards mechanized and artificial lifestyle, far away from nature.
• Dependence on market-economy for basic necessities
• Rise in cases of health matters, divorces and depression
• There is rise in divorce cases,
• Balance responsibilities of workplace and household.
• Sense of loneliness.
• Children are glued to social media. In joint families, elderly give child-care and take charge of the welfare of children.

Nuclear family – Under the influence of modernity, more and more Indians are copying the family-culture of Western societies. There is sharp increase in the number of women, joining labour force. Family formation, for both husband and wife working outside for paid jobs is changing. It has taken a U-turn to balance responsibilities at workplace and of familial liabilities.

Responsibilities of cooking, education and training, child-care and protection to senior citizens are preferred to be given to outside agencies. Increasingly, both career-minded men and women prefer first to establish themselves and then enter into family life. Number of senior citizens is much more than before.

It is becoming fashionable among educated middle-class families to eat outside food. It causes health problems, susceptibility to infection and unnecessary expenditure.

Modernity has taught humans to make a living but not a life. A few common practices can help people build a strong, happy and healthy family. A Human-being is a social animal. Without companion/near and dear ones, one becomes very lonely.

It is difficult to imagine how lonely and emotionally suffocated humans irrespective of their age group be it a child, a youth or an elderly person. CHILDREN are deprived of the pleasures of childhood because of heavy curriculum and high expectations of parents. Young people mostly suffer from anxiety and frustration to meet two ends, responsibilities at workplace and familial obligations. Senior citizens, at the fag-end of their life, suffer from loneliness the most. They have virtually no connection with younger generation because of their busy schedule. Thus, people of all age-groups are bottled up with stress and suffer from anxiety or depression. Life becomes a constant struggle for youth and hell old people. Increasing cases of depression all over the world is the proof.

Ego and tendency of not trusting others or fear of being rejected compel him to hold back his emotions. Heart to heart conversations have become rare.  artificial and shallow. To keep family honour intact, people usually talk/behave artificially. It hardly lessens stress, anxiety or depression.

It is an irony of modern times that people have lots of friends on electronic medium/social media/face-book/words-ap. etc., but there is no one to rely on. It causes stress anxiety and depression. Mental and physical health of lonely persons decline quite fast. Society also does not regard them as normal.

What prevents? – Main hurdles on the way of a happy family are false ego, fear, unfulfilled expectations, rat-race giving rise to prejudices, anger and revenge. Besides –  

• No time or patience – In fast-paced life of today, life is so busy and fast that nobody has time or patience to listen. It is considered as waste of time. ‘Get to the point’ is the base of communicating with others. Such an attitude takes toll on family-relationships. It makes most people unsocial, and self-serving.
• Faceless interaction – Today, usually through digital medium, family-members communicate with each-other. Electronic speedy means of communication has led the world through electronic medium Heart to heart conversation is missing. In the cards game of Bridge, there is a phony call of one club indicating that the player has a strong set of cards, but no depth in any suit. Similarly, face to face interaction has been replaced by new modes of digital and online communication. The result is –
  • Slave of technology – Instead of being masters, people have become slave of technology.
  • Feeling of caring and sharing their happiness and sorrows are missing.  
  • Phony relationships – There are quick, easier and more contacts through networking at very little or no cost, but has dis-connected even the family-members. The moment people open their computers or mobile, they forget about the presence of people sitting around them.
  • Understanding about each other, missing in Faceless interactions – Faceless interaction on phones has made people insensitive. Every-day a humans talk to hundreds of people, yet they hardly understand much about the person they are talking to. Face-to face interaction enables people to know the reactions, thoughts and feelings of others. It becomes easier to understand others, while talking face to face by watching their body-language, or expressions on face. It connects a person with others and can make a difference in life. People can develop a sense of belonging to the society, companionship and can learn to co-exist.
  • Smart phones and dump people – Interaction through Smart phones have made people quite insensitive. In this fast-paced life, nobody has time or patience to listen others point of view.  ‘Get to the point’ is the trend of communicating with others.

• How to develop Harmonious relationships – The foundation pillars for making a family happy and strong, are compassion, empathy love, understanding, trust, confidence, faith, sincerity and similar interests. It basically depends on –

  • Institution of marriage – A traditional family starts with marriage. Institution of marriage teaches to let go ego and ignore the flaws of the partner and appreciate qualities for the sake of love. It teaches both men and women to be together in thick and thins despite difference of opinion and motivate the partner to do better in life. It teaches them to be loving, caring and be patient. It prepares the mind-set of couple to welcome and raise their kids.
  • Couples – After marriage, what a person gets is an honest and responsible life-long companion/partner, an encourager, practical motivator, empathizer, challenger and a good listener. There are occasions in life when one becomes irrationally biased because of his/her blood relations, they play the role of adviser for each other. If the partner listens it is ok, otherwise give each other space to do what they want.
  • Respect differences – Each one within a family is unique, incomparable. Nobody is superior, or inferior, and nobody equal either. All members are just like five fingers in a hand. When people interact with like-minded people, who have the same goals or thinking, they develop compassion for each other. 
  • Family-relationship, reciprocal – Harmony within a family develops, when relationship follows the principle of ‘Division of labour’ and ‘give and take’. Both man & women learn to be loving, caring and be polite and stick to each other through their thick and thins.
  • Marriage makes Him or Her realize the value of sacrifice and compromise and makes couple stand behind each other like a solid rock in times of difficulties.
  • Mother’s role in a family is to give tender care to her babies and toddlers.
  • Father goes through many hardships and does sacrifices for taking care of the needs of his child.
  • Siblings teaches the art of loving, caring and sharing.
  • Children makes elders of the family selfless and think about their future before their own wishes.
  • Grandchildren gives heavenly pleasure through their innocent actions, talks, and behaviour.
  • Friends makes one tolerant to people with different opinions and viewpoints.
  • According to ‘Sanatan Dharma’ of Hindu philosophy, there are following stages in human life –
    • Infancy or childhood – It is the birth right of a newcomer in this cosmic world to get parental care with love and affection. Parents are the givers and baby/toddler are the receivers.
    • Stage of learning and developing personality (5-6 to 20-25) – This the period of strict discipline, learning and acquisition of knowledge. Family rears, protects and gives its best to youngsters. Here family is the giver and individual recipient.
    • Married life – This phase of life is the most energetic one. Thes phase of life is the real ground to utilize one’s intellectual, physical and economic capabilities. They are responsible to take proper care of their dependents, which include elders, children, members of extended family and strangers in need of help. This is the time for individuals to socialize and take active part in socio-economic and political activities of the nation and to fulfill their dreams and ambitions. It presents opportunities to practice and cultivate all the three Dharmas – Artha, Kama (fulfillment of duties and financial and material success for full enjoyment of life). Proper management of the internal matters of family, and fulfilling the needs of all family members, younger or older, and to support directly or indirectly is the responsibility of the head of the family. At this stage of life, married couples are the contributors and family or society is the recipient.  
    • Senior citizens life – It is a neutral phase of life. Task assigned to this group is teaching Dharma and extended care. Material success is not aim. They should practice resignation and renunciation.
  • Communication is the lifeline of harmonious relationship. Communication should be adequate, timely, uniform, acceptable and consistent with the expectations of the recipient. Not only, that what is communicated, matters, but when it is communicated and how it is communicated also matters a lot. What is ‘communicated’ reaches to mind. How it is said reaches to heart.

  Relationship gets adversely affected due to lack of free and frank communication. Gaps widens, when there is a lack of communication or communication is not clear. “Between what is said and not meant, and what is meant and not said, most of love is lost.” (Khalil Gibran) So –

  • • Be honest and natural, no artificial gesture to show closeness.
    • Respect the traditional way of living. It is like an anchor, which keeps one’s boat even in the stormy water of an ocean. Do not discard or reject it out-rightly.
    • Besides try to trust others, keep good communication to develop healthy relationships, have patience to listen what others want to say. Do not reject their point of view out-rightly.
    • Gaps are created, not by what is said, but by how it is said. What is said reaches to mind and how it is said reaches to heart.
    • Life provides opportunities to convert them into developing harmonious relationships. Only one has to move forward, cross the road and shake hands with the near and dear ones.  

  Happiness depends on balanced and harmonious relationship and harmonious relationship depends on coordination. And coordination depends on adequate communication with fellow beings. All the problems and unhappiness, be it environmental, social, economic, political or health-related, arise out of disharmony, imbalances and lack of coordination.

  Conclusion – People are dreaming to reach up to the moon and back but find no time to take even one step crossing the road to meet and chat freely with their Neighbour or relatives. Lack of enough communication has made people insensitive, impatient and self-centred. People are missing the chances of little pleasures in life.

  Free, frank, honest and heart to heart communication/conversation with near and dear ones is necessary, to save humans from depression or overjoy or emotional loneliness, harmonious relationship and. Rhythm with others can be achieved by cool and heart to heart conversation. Sharing of joys with near and dear ones doubles the happiness. Similarly sharing one’s worries or sorrows lessens the mental strain.

[i]            Basham, Wonder That Was India, p 151.

[i]            Hutton, Caste in India:Its Nature, Functions and Origin, p 101.

Management of Employers and Employees relationship

Reform, perform and transform III

Journey of Jajmani system In India

(Management of Employers and Employees relationship)

The purpose of “Development is to help people live longer, more productive and fulfilling lives. This simple and powerful truth is too often forgotten, in the pursuit of material and financial Wealth. Economic growth, that does not have people at its center, is development without soul”. Mahbubal Haq

“Your work is going to fill a large part of your life. The only way to be truly satisfied in life is to do what you believe is great work. And the only way to do great work is to love what you do.” – Steve Jobs

“Asato Maa Sad-Gamaya, Tamaso Maa Jyotir-Gamaya” (Lead us from Ignorance to Truth, from Darkness to Light)

Introduction – Employment for all is a distant dream even today. Something somewhere is wrong, which needs to be addressed soon. Aversion from their traditional occupations has rendered millions unemployed or under-employed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employment is increasing day by day because of population explosion. Instead of being facilitator and making youth employable, government itself has taken charge of creating jobs and employing them, whether required or not. Purpose is to create vote-banks.

Industrialization and developments in the fields of science and technology has given rise to unlimited new occupations especially in service-sector, but access to them depends on degrees and certificates.

It will be interesting to know as to when and how jajmani system originated. Jajmani system is Division of labour and Management of relationship between employers and employees in a local area. It is a very old and indigenous system, conceptualized, developed and practiced exclusively in India. Jajmani arrangements and relationship originated long long ago, when pastoral tribal society in India was transformed into a settled agricultural society. Tribes and clans had settled down permanently in different parts of the country, confining their activities within a small area or territory.  As reflected in ‘Rigveda’, during early stages of Vedic Age people ceased to be a wandering people, started a settled life. Since then, has travelled a very long distance experiencing many ups and downs.

Initially there was a simple division of labour occupation-wise, i.e., employers (Yajmans) and their helpers/employees (kamins or Parja). Slowly, possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started. People started producing and possessing more than they needed. As time passed on, there have been continuous changes in the need of people and society. Accordingly changed the relationships between employers and employees, pattern of employment, nature of occupations, strategy, structure, management techniques and work-culture. Different systems and principles have been evolved for the better future. They remain in vogue for some time, then fade and give way to new structures, systems and concepts.

To keep pace with the time, traditional Jajmani system keeps on changing its arrangements and work-culture. Jajmani system has not become obsolete so far. It exists even now in modern India, but in different form. It has neither been restricted by law nor is in practice everywhere all-over the country. It is found most notably in villages, small cities or and at outskirts of metros of India. It is also found at many places such as in Sri Lanka, Pakistan etc. Many Caste-councils follow customary rules/traditional practices in case of any dispute between Employer and employees. Age-old customs, traditions and guidance of Elders keep on making necessary changes/adjustments, in case of any confusion, difference of opinion or dispute. Jajmani system is still the backbone of rural economy and social order In India.

What Jajmani system Is? – Jajmani system is a unique arrangement of managing relationship between employers and employees. It is an ancient Pre-industrial, Traditional, Socio-economic, Varna/caste-based, Self-sufficient, Local institution. Traditional occupational arrangements under jajmani system tries to keep cordial relationship between EMPLOYER & EMPLOYEES, SERVICE-TAKERS and SERVICE-GIVERS, HAVES and HAVE-NOTS, so that together they can provide to their respective local societies, a quality of life by organizing its socio-economic activities. Jajmani system can be said to be based on a patron-client model rather than MASTER & SERVANTS, SUPERIOR or INFERIOR CLASS, HIGH or LOW in STATUS castes.

Wiser was the first to use the term Jajmani for inter-caste and inter-familial system in his book Hindu jajmani system 1936. ‘Jajman’ (one who receives the service, Employer) and ‘Kamin’ (Service-providers/Employees) are integral part of Jajmani system. In agricultural societies, Jajman meant land-owning caste and Kamin, serving groups/castes. Now, the terms ‘Jajman’ is commonly used for all Employers, who hires services and Kamin, Parja for labour force.

Jajmani system manages basic socio-economic activities in Indian villages and small cities, regulates inter-relationship of different occupation-based castes and service-receiving castes locally. It caters the needs of both employers and employees. Families of an occupational based castes (Kamins) provide their services to employers belonging to other castes (Jajmans). In return of the services of Kamins’ family/families, Jajmans protect/help Kamins family, whenever needed and shares their happiness and sorrows as family members. From both the sides, this relationship continues generation after generation. Their relationship is more like father and son relationship.

Jajmani system works well in areas, wherever lifestyle of people is simple, and people have not been caught within the web of modernity. There it can keep day to day relations of all social groups, harmonious.

Earlier, there was not much disparity between “Haves” and “Have-nots”. People of all castes were bound together by economic and social ties and had a strong bond of mutual dependence. There was not much confusion, unhealthy rivalry or frustration on matter of work, because everybody had his traditional occupation. Instead of holding others responsible for their unemployment, the system blamed “Adharma” (immoral behavior), “Alasya” (laziness) and “Agyan” (ignorance) for unemployment and all evils like exploitation, poverty and helplessness that follow unemployment automatically.

Opinion of scholars on Jajmani system – A number of studies have been conducted on jajmani system in India. The first detailed study of Jajmani tradition in India was made by William H. Wiser. Other important studies on this system are of N.S. Reddy’s study on North India in 1955, W.H. Wiser’s study in 1936, Prof. S.C. Dubey’s study in Hyderabad; D.N. Majumdar’s study (1958) in Lucknow of U.P., Katheline Cough’s (1955) study in Tanjore, Darling’s study (1934) In Punjab etc.

Oskar Lewis says “‘Under the system, each caste group within a village is expected to give certain standardised services to the families of other castes. Each one works for certain family or group of families with whom he is hereditary linked’.

Edmund R. Leach (1960) accepts that, “Jajmani system maintains and regulates the division of labour and economic interdependence of caste.” Under it, different activities needed for maintenance and growth of the society, are assigned to different castes, according to its natural endowment, qualities and aptitudes. Since society itself assigns everybody a specific task to do, it gave a feeling to all, that they are integral parts of the society. Each one earns a rightful place in the society and can live with dignity and honour, with the feeling that they, too, are contributing something to the society.

William H. Wiser (1967) says, “Jajmani system serves to maintain the Indian village as a self-sufficient community.” Local character of jajmani arrangements made each and every area self-sufficient and capable to fulfil all the needs of its people locally. By its very nature, it encouraged the development and preservation of local skills. Local character and semi-autonomous nature of the system made close interaction and cooperation between different groups a reality. Not a single group could claim to be self-sufficient, capable to survive alone and fulfil all its needs.

According to Harold Gould (1987), “Jajmani system distributes agricultural produce, in exchange for menial and craft services.” It is only half-truth. Jajmans not only provide kamin with food and shelter, but also share their happiness and sorrows. They are liable to care and welfare of their Kamins, safeguard their interests and save them from exploitation at the hands of others. Whenever required jajman advances loans or gifts to Kamins at time of festivals and other similar occasions. In return, kamins serve their Jajmans with full dedication and devotion. It develops human relationship between employer and employees.

Yogendra Singh describes Jajmani system, as a system governed by relationship based on reciprocity in inter-caste- relation. Service relations between Jajman and Kamin are governed by customary laws. Ishwaran has said, that it is a system in which each caste has a role to play in a community life as a whole. This role consists of economic, social and moral functions.

According to N.S. Reddy, “Jajmani jobs are considered to be proprietary. When a person has no son but only daughter, the rights are passed on to the son-in-law. If one has no daughter as well, it is passed on to the next nearest relative”.

Harold Gould also says, Jajmani system was “Inter-familial inter-caste relationship pertaining to the patterning of super- ordinate-subordinate relations between patrons and suppliers of services. Patrons are the families of clean castes while the suppers of services are the families of lower and unclean caste”. There is only half-truth in this comment. Respect or honour in Jajmani system is not dependent on being born in clean castes or unclean castes. Persons born in so-called un-clean castes were accepted and revered as philosophers or spiritual teachers. Great respect is earned by them as a right, in- spite of their being from humblest origin. For example, Sage Vashishta was the son of Uravshi, a prostitute, but he is highly respected all-over India as the principal of the conservative school of Brahmanism. So was ‘Kshatriya’ Vishwamitra, the maker of the Gayatri Mantra, the quintessence of the Vedic Brahmanism, is recited even as of today almost in every house every day and on all auspicious occassions. Aitreya, after whom the sacramental part of Rig-Veda is named as Aitreya Brahamana, was the son from a non-Aryan wife of a Brahman sage. Vyasa of Mahabharata fame was the son of a fish-woman. Balmiki, the original author of Ramayana, was an untouchable according to present standards, but is still highly respected.

Formation of occupational groups was not very uncommon. During Medieval period, England and many other European nations also had associations of craftsmen and merchants, known as Guild System, which promoted socio-economic interests of their members as well as provided protection and mutual aid. So was it in ancient and medieval India. (Shore Fredrick John Notes on India Affairs Vol II P.473).

Characteristics Of Jajmani system – Following are the main features of jajmani system –

• Community-based not individual- based – It does not give much choice to individuals to decide about their occupation. Whereas Modern system of employment gives freedom to individuals to choose any job of their liking.
• Hereditary – Jajmani ties are hereditary. Relationship between the families if employers and employees continue generation after generation. Jajmani rights were inherited on both sides or equally distributed among the successors of the deceased jajman or kamins. When there is separation in a family, it takes care of the rights of both parties and divides it like any other property of the family.
• Durable or permanent relations – Jajmani ties between employer (Jajman) and employees (Kamins) are not based on contract or temporary, it is a permanent relationship between families that continue to exist over time. During their spare time, kamins, depending upon his nature of work, can serve more families. For example, a barber can serve in more than one village. Payments also fluctuates according to the position of supply and supply, their skills and labour.
• Regulates division of labour and socio-economic interdependence of castes, (Edmund leech). Scope of employees’ work depends on demands.
• It is functional – It gives security to employees and ensures a regular and uninterrupted service to employers. It creates tension-free atmosphere by giving peace and satisfaction to both.
• Castes are paid mostly in kind or cash in exchange for menial and craft services rather than hard cash.
• Inter-dependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life.
• Satisfied both, the service-givers as well service-takers and maintains harmonious relations between higher and lower castes.
• Integration of different social groups, ie, castes. Keeps each and every local area self-sufficient (Wiser).
• Ideology of Parentalism guides Employer and employee relationship.

In the present scenario as well, traditional jajmani system facilitates enough employment opportunities to all individuals willing to work. It encourages them to go for their hereditary/traditional occupations.

Plusses and minuses of Jajmani system – Jajmani system consists of both protective and exploitative elements. Neither traditional nor modern method of employment is fool-proof or flawless. Both have their own strength, weaknesses and professional hazards.

Advantages of jajmani system are –

• Provides sense of security, peace and satisfaction/contentment to both, employers and employees. No jajman goes without service nor any kamin goes without food.
• Gives economic security to employees. They do not have to worry about finding employment. They know that if they go away from their family occupation, they will face difficulty to earn enough livelihood.
• In crisis employer helps employees.
• Employers are mentally relieved, as they are assured of the services, they require.
• Jajmani arrangements are more in favour of “Have-nots service-providers-
  • Jobs of working class were assured. It is obligatory for an employer to employ the son of his employees.
  • Employers/service-takers do not have the right like modern wage-relations to discontinue/terminate the services of the families of serving occupational castes any time or after the job is done or secure the services of another.
  • If they were not satisfied with the quality of the service, or they notice slackness on the part of the service-providers, they can bring the matter to the attention of Council of their respective local area.
  • There is no compulsion that service-providers should work for specific family or families. Scope of their work depends on demand and supply.
  • Service-providers are assured of their economic security.
• System creates an atmosphere conducive to peaceful living and co-operation. Cut-throat-competition for work or employment is almost absent in jajmani arrangements.
• Close relationship between employers and employees. It is not purely economical, nor individual or temporary, but is permanent, emotional and internal. A spirit of fellow feeling and brotherhood develops under this system. Both are aware of each other’s limitations and plus points. Both try their best to adjust with each other.
• Jajmani arrangements tell people that Work is worship. All occupations are worth pursuing for the benefit of the whole society. No occupation is high or low.
• Do sincerely and consistently, the work society has assigned to different sections of society, and not to interfere in other’s work. The system avoids confusion, bitterness, rivalry or frustration on matter of work.

Disadvantages – The system has been criticized for being –

• Not giving much choice to individuals to decide about their occupation.
• Source of exploitation, discrimination and suppression. Exploitation of lower castes (such as Khati (Carpenter), Nai (Barber), Kumhars (Potters), Lobars (Blacksmiths), Dhobi (Washer man), Sweeper (Chuhra) etc) by families of upper castes (like of agriculturists, the zamindars) continues under the garb of paternal ties. They receive the benefit of services and products of lower castes 
• Its hereditary nature restricts the mobility of have-nots.
• Develops feeling of superiority and inferiority. Service class is considered low whereas class of service-takers, high. 
• Impediment to occupational and social mobility.
• Jajmani system is very much supported by caste-system. Critics say that this system suffers from all the evils of caste system.

Journey of Jajmani system from ancient times onwards

Jajmani system in ancient India – The term ‘Jajmani’ is derived from Vedic term, ‘Yajman’, which means, a person getting the services of a Brahmin to perform religious ceremonies (Yagyas). Later on, the term Yajman became Jajman. From religious sphere, it passed on to socio-economic arena.

Beginning of Jajmani arrangements in India can be traced from the times of ancient agricultural society, when pastoral tribal society transformed into a settled agricultural society, confining its activities and life within a small area. Agricultural society leisurely evolved its structures and systems over about 2000 years (roughly between 2000 BC to about 600 BC) and kept on coping with the changes slowly, time had brought in. Traditional Jajmani arrangements had started sometimes during ancient agricultural Indian society to manage daily necessities and working of the society. Possession of land, slaves and hired laborers started.

There has been a deep influence of Vedic principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma on Jajmani arrangements. Influence of Vedic principles on Jajmani system can be seen clearly in its systems –

• Influence of Principle of Varna on Jajmani system – Under the influence of Principle of Varna, unique traditional occupational Jajmani system –
• Provides Employment, dignity and honour for all –Professor Shah says, “Varna/Caste system has a long range and permanent plan embracing every class of society. If applied to every individual, regardless of age and other conditions, no one could be unemployed. Nor could have one worked inappropriate to one’s ability, training, environment, aptitude and attainment, nor could any work be inadequately remunerated.”
• Differentiates between various occupations –Principle of Varna differentiates various occupations. According to it, the whole world of activities is a result of complex intermixing of three basic qualities of human nature – goodness (Satwa), Passion (Rajas) and dullness (Tamas). `Goodness’ is associated with purity, peace and knowledge; `Passion’ with comfort and action; and `Tamas’ with ignorance, sloth, sleep and carelessness. These qualities determine tendencies, potentialities, limitations, traits and character of people and give them direction for action. It makes individuals different from each other in attitude, aptitude, physical and mental capacity, aspirations, like and dislikes, inclination and expectations. Principle of Varna differentiates various occupations on the basis of these factors. So does Jajmani Arrangements.
• Division of labour – Principle of Varna differentiates all functions, needed for the maintenance and growth of whole society, on the basis of natural instincts, skills, needs of the society and other innate characteristics. It does fourfold division of occupations and assigns to different Varnas (followed by caste system) –Brahmins (intellectuals), who have psychological characteristics, positive attitude and natural inclination to pursue knowledge, are assigned the work of pursuing knowledge, research and development activities, and set norms for general public. Kashtriyas (warriors/administrators) having action-oriented attitude and qualities courage, bravery and power are assigned the job of defence and maintenance of law and order in the society.Vashyas (business community) smart in tricks and nuances of trade, were given the charge of trade, commerce and business. Shudras (manual labours/supportive hands), who are unable to take independent decisions, are advised to work under the guidance of the above three.
• With passage of time, people found it more economical and convenient to follow their traditional occupations on hereditary basis. Jajmani arrangements has always given importance to natural endowments, intelligence along with attitude and aptitude. Work in the spheres of agriculture and army has always been open to all. T Colebrooke, an early Sanskrit Scholar says, “It may be received as a general maxim that occupation appointed for each tribe is entitled merely to a preference. Every profession, with few exceptions, was open to every description of persons and the discouragement arising from religious prejudices is not greater than what exists in Great Britain from the effects of Municipal and Corporate laws.” (Quoted from ‘Indian Express’, dated 18.9.90, p 8).
• High level of Specialization and wisdom – Jajmani arrangements organise different activities within each unit, effectively and manage human and social behaviour in tune with the objectives of the society. Working in hereditary occupation led the society to achieve a high level of specialization and wisdom. Its hereditary nature makes downward filtration of knowledge and wisdom possible.
• Jajmani system develops joint effort and cooperation of occupational caste to face common challenges of their occupation and to find out their solutions. It leads to accomplish more skill, specialization, success and happiness.
• By its very nature, it encourages development and preservation of local skills.
• Don Martindale said that earlier, ancient India possessed a reservoir of natural leaders. Brahmans in literary skills, Kashitryas in art of leadership and different service groups in particular skills.
• Transfer of knowledge and expertise done from one generation to the following generations serves as a spawning bed for social and technical skills. The manner, in which social, technical and occupational knowledge and skills are transferred and developed, is through practice and experience; not through formal classroom lectures, which often kills originality and verve of people.
• Natural training without investment – The system transmits knowledge, expertise, tricks of the trade, intelligence, abilities, experiences, values and skills within their families under training and guidance of their ‘elders’. Children, while growing up, learnt about hidden intricacies of profession and solutions of occupational problems/hazards, informally from their elders. Being constantly in contact with the family occupation, it is natural for younger generations to learn maximum about their traditional occupations, that too without much expenditure.
• Benefit of the knowledge and wisdom of learned intelligentsia, sages and Munies filters down to the ignorant and illiterate masses. On the basis of their scholarly researches and experiences, the sages have prescribed certain guidelines in the form of rituals for the benefit of common men and keeping order in the society. It is the sincere efforts of ancient Rishis and Munies that India has entered into modern world without any cultural break.
• The system as a whole increases confidence of the workers. Total environment of working, under normal circumstances, gives satisfaction to both Jajmaan and Kamins. It saved people from confusion or unhealthy competition.
• Ranking, not much Disparity – Earlier, there was not any hard and fast rule of ranking various occupational groups/castes in ancient India. Genius sages and ‘Munies’ (intelligentsia of ancient India) have conceived socio-economic values, its systems and arrangements in such a way that there had been hardly any room for any Varna/caste to consider itself, as being placed in greater or lesser disadvantageous position with reference to another.
  • Character, conduct and way of living along with relevance, usefulness and contribution of their occupations to society were the factors to determine social, economic or political status in society visa vis others.
  • Observation of self-discipline (relative purity), moral standard, knowledge and spiritual standards were the parameters to earn the respect of the society. Higher a group, greater were the self-restrictions on its behaviour through rituals. Brahmins (intellectuals), occupying the highest place in the society, were put under maximum restrictions and were denied accumulation of wealth. They were directed to lead a simple life, devoted to the spiritual and intellectual pursuits and were denied accumulation of wealth.
  • Considerations of hygiene and cleanliness on the basis of climatic conditions of the region were given importance. Jajmani arrangements prohibited the well settled families to exercise coercion against its working class. Categorization of people as forwards or backwards or as weaker sections and powerful lobbies was almost non-existent at that time.
• Ranking of different occupational groups (Varna followed by castes) does not put them within a framework of hierarchical layers of social order, each fitting neatly below the other, but more or less as a series of vertical parallels.
• Interdependence – The intrinsic features of Varna system – interdependence in social life and self-reliance in personal life – is visible in Jajmani arrangements as well. It makes each and every local area self-sufficient to fulfil the basic needs of all its people and freedom in their personal matters to each occupational group.
• Develops Human relationship between employers and employees – Jajmani Arrangements still caters needs of both employers and employees in rural India and keeps both Jajman and Kamin. But, in modern big cities and Metros, individuals live in their own world, confined within watertight compartments, and hardly have any interaction with others persons living in the same area. Relationship between Jajman and Kamin are not purely economic. It is more like father and son relationship. The spirit of paternalism guided Jajmans, who give food grain or money to their kamins from time to time.
• Influence of Principles of Dharma – Like the Principle of Dharma, in Jajmani system, all occupations are supposed to be worth pursuing. It inspired people to do their jobs well, as all worldly honour and spiritual happiness were vested there.
  • Like Principle of Dharma, Jajmani system makes clear-cut division of rights and duties of both Jajmaans and Kamins as well as of each occupational social group separately. It gives due consideration to the requirements of different occupations and develops understanding amongst people for their liberties, limits and responsibilities.
  • Clear-cut division of rights and duties/responsibility each occupational group boosts morale of people and promotes social equilibrium and solidarity. Day to day relations of all social groups inside the local society remain harmonious.
  • It manages smoothly day-to-day necessities and relation with one-another. All castes including untouchables are assigned important social duties. Harijan women helped all castes at time of child-birth, Harijan males beat drums in front of a procession on auspicious occasions/ceremonies. Village barber spread news, arranges marriages and served food during celebrations. Occasionally non-Brahmins or Harijans serve as priests of temples of goddesses like Sita or Kali, where all castes can make offerings.
  • Arrangements under jajmani system are made on the principle of ‘Give and take’. Accepting “Freebees” is considered derogatory. Both Jajmans (patrons) and Kamins (workers), belonging to different castes, know that they, too, are serving the community in one way or the other way and are contributing something worthwhile to the society.
  • Jajmani system saved common-men from confusion or unhealthy competition. It avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society.
• Influence of the Principle of Karma – Influence of Principle of ‘Karma’ can be seen in the work culture of jajmani system in following areas –
• Teaches that “Work is worship”. Any work done in its true spirit could never be derogatory or a waste.  A work was not so much valued for its external reward, as for the intrinsic satisfaction towards realization of Swadharma.
• Inspires people to do their jobs well, as all worldly honour and spiritual happiness were vested there. 
• Assures people that proper performance of one’s work, whether high or humble, whether of a priest, warrior, Shudra or yogi are equally important and contributes in giving the whole society a quality of life. Therefore every occupation is right, respectable and worth pursuing.
• Disassociation between Wealth and knowledge/skills – Jajmani system separates wealth from status, power from authority, pursuit and achievement in knowledge/skills from temptations of worldly comforts and gives more value to knowledge, purity, discipline and moral standards of people. Now, in modern societies social status of a person or organization is linked with money and material success or control of political power/authority.
• Guides people not to interfere unnecessarily in other groups’ occupations/work.
• Not to blame others – ‘Adharma” (immoral behavior), “Alasya” (laziness) and Agyan (ignorance) were held responsible for unemployment and all evils like exploitation, poverty and helplessness of people.
• Every social group was expected to lead a self-restraint and self-disciplined life in all respect, be it in the matter of daily routine, occupation or inter-group relationship. Whereas, Western cultures has grown around the idea of `rights” forming the natural foundation of human relationship, traditional system of occupation evolves around the concept of “duty, tolerance and sacrifice”. Emphasis on duty usually makes a person or a group humble and tolerant. Principle of Karma regarded sacrifice more important than success, and renunciation as the crowning achievement. Such a Work-culture fills the community with a sense of duty and train them in obedience. It has helped Indians to adjust themselves, without much difficulty, to most drastic changes in the past.
• Ancient traditional jajmani arrangements had led ancient India to more production, economic efficiency and expertise in almost all the areas and activities like spinning, weaving, pottery making, bead making, seal making, terra-cotta, handicrafts, brick-laying, metal work etc. Many travellers visiting India, from alien lands at different points of time, confirmed that India possessed huge wealth, knowledge, and quality of life. It was a cheerful land. Each person found a niche in the social system. Its people reached a high level of intelligence having specialization in different areas. An average Indian, according to Dr. Albert Swheitzen, “Did not find life a vale of tears, from which to escape at all costs, rather he was willing to accept the world, as he finds it and, extract, what happiness he could, from it”. Recently U.S. Ambassador John Kenneth Galbraith remarked, “While he had seen poverty in many countries of the world, he found an unusual attribute among the poor of India. There is richness in their poverty. They did not count wealth in money alone”.
• It has stopped people from taking law in their own hands. While other nations passed through many bloody revolutions, India kept on adapting itself to changing times. In ancient Greece, Rome or other European countries, people were made to work under the threat of a whip. The system worked so well that when the world was passing through the Dark Age, India was full of light. The first few centuries are recognized as the golden period of Indian history. During this period, arts, commerce, crafts, philosophy and knowledge flourished magnificently.
• Jajmani system during medieval period – During medieval period, Pattern of employment and work-culture continued as it was during ancient times. There was no dearth of employment for aspiring workers in India.  A substantial labour market existed.  In addition to their hereditary occupation, agriculture and army were open to all sections of society irrespective of caste or community. Only requirement was mainly to develop capacities, capabilities, basic qualifications to do that job. Such as, for administrative work, bravery and management skill was necessary. Jajmani system worked well throughout pre-colonial era.
• With the passage of time, Jajmani system has started losing its creditability. Industrialization, modernization and globalization has affected immensely, the pattern of employment and its work culture. It brought many economic, social and political changes. There was a shift from agrarian economy to manufacturing economy. Products were no longer made solely by hand, but with the help of machines. This led to increased production, more goods and migration from rural areas to urban areas. Urbanization led to the growth of cities.
• Challenges to jajmani system have come with the beginning of Industrialization, Modernization, and Globalization processes. Fast changes have been happening in the pattern of employment, work-culture and value system since second half of 20^th and beginning of 21^st centuries. Many new kinds of occupations/jobs have been added continuously to the traditional jobs of pre-industrial-society of earlier days. There have been four major revolutions in the sphere of job-market, which has changed the employment pattern and mechanised its work-culture –
• The First revolution during late seventies period used water and steam power to mechanized agriculture by industry.
• Second phase of mechanization used electricity, gas, and oil to create mass production at the end of 19^th century.
• Third revolution (second half of the 20^th century) gave rise to digital technology. It gave rise to electronics, telecommunication and computers.
• Now 21^st century is an era of Artificial Intelligence. (For reference see Latasinha’s Weblog, system of employment in ancient and modern India).
• Jajmani system during Modern times – World entered from medieval era to modernity roughly around 16^th century to late 18^th century. Modern times can be divided into –
• Early modern period
• Late modern period
• Contemporary Modern Period  
• Early Modern Period – (between 1600 to 1800) – During this period, there had been a wide-ranging political, economic and intellectual changes in India. Position of India and England during early modern times, sayup till 16^th century, India had become the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. Alex Von Tunzelmann describes India as, “A vast, mighty and magnificent Empire, brilliantly organized and culturally unified. It dominated a massive swath of the earth. An average Indian peasant enjoyed a relatively higher income, and lower taxation than his descendants ever would again. Under Mughal rule, its people, Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists were allowed freedom of conscience and custom.”
• At that point of time, “England was underdeveloped, semi-feudal realm, riven legions factionalism, and barely able to feed its illiterate, diseased, and stinking masses areas and worked on land, going hungry during frequent food shortages. They were prevented from moving into industry by the protectionist rackets of guild entry fee. Begging was common. Nation’s ten thousand vagabonds were the terror of the land. Quality of life was not good. About two-third population lived at subsistence levels.” (Indian Summer, The secret history of the end of Empire, pp 11-12)
• After industrialization, the position of India and Britain had reversed. The process of Industrialization, had benefitted England (where it began) the most. England increased its economic, military and political power by colonizing other nations. By mid-18^th century, Britain was the world’s leading commercial nation and India an under-developed country colonised by British Empire.
• Late modern period (1800 up to World War II) – During this period, World was dominated by Imperial and Colonial powers.  It can be said that process of Modernization started in India during mid-18^th century with the arrival of Britishers. British colonized India and established its rule firmly over the entire country in 1857. Processes of modernization, industrialization and colonization brought prosperity and poverty simultaneously. Karl Marx remarked that British, “had a double mission in India, one destructive, the other regenerating; the annihilation of the old Asiatic Society and laying the material foundation of Western Society in Asia.”^I (Dutt RP, India Today, p476)
• Factors that changed socio-economic arrangements in India – Changes which changed the socio-economic Jajmani arrangements, value system, its work-culture and mutual relationship between employer and employees are –
• Introduction of Grammer school education system (1834) – Introduction of modern education in 1835. Introduction of Wood’s dispatch of 1854, known as Magna Carta, declared English as an official language. It was made compulsory for Government employment. It served a double purpose for the British rulers. They got the credit for the amelioration of the Indian society. But at the same time, through it, they devised a unique method of distribution of power, kept balance of power and prolonged their rule in India by keeping the natives busy in their in-fights.
• At that time all, humanitarians, intellectuals, leaders and leaders and social reformers not only welcomed rationality and other good features of Modern English education. They hoped that modern education would –
• Enlighten Indians by giving them the key to open the treasures of scientific discoveries and democratic, liberal and humanitarian thoughts of the modern ‘West’ through Western literature and philosophy.
• Make people aware of the real issues hampering the progress of Indian society, remedy the social, political and economic ills of the country and improve the life of common men by enabling them to conquer ignorance, hunger, poverty and disease.
• Spread of the Principles of Democracy across the nation to bring to an end imperialism and tyranny of British rule.
• Modern education system has both of constructive and destructive effects on its systems. On one hand, it offered to Indian intelligentsia the key to the treasures of scientific and democratic thoughts of Modern ‘West’, on the other hand, it had disassociated Indian people from their culture, classical roots, knowledge and traditional way of living. Along with it, faded Indian values, philosophies and traditions.
• As recorded, pre-colonial education in India was fairly universal. Temples and mosques of each village and children of all communities attended these schools. (According to Historian Dharampal’s work based on British documents from early 1800s) Gurukuls/temple-based charity education declined and government-funded missionary schools took over the charge of educating people. [Jayant Pandurang Nayaka; Syed Nurullah, 1974, A students’ history of education in India (1800-1973)] Modern education system had dis-associated Indian people from their traditional way of learning, employment pattern, work-culture, classical roots and knowledge. With it, faded Indian values, philosophies and traditions.
• Relentless effort of missionaries and reformers could educate a very small number of people from amongst them. It rose from estimated 3.2% to 16.1% in 1941. (Census 2011: Literacy rate and sex ratio in India since 1901 to 2011). Reason for low literacy rate during colonial rule was that Modern education was very costly, therefore unaffordable by the masses. The medium of instruction was also a foreign language – English. Besides masses did not see any immediate use of education at that time. It was more important for poor people to work and arrange two square meals day.
• Industrialization – Processes of Industrialization and Modernity brought prosperity and poverty simultaneously.
• Industrial Revolution has made drastic changes in the social life of people. There has been shifts in population, ecology, technology, culture and relationships. The behaviour, life style, values, and attitudes as well as in the power equations and inter-relationship of various individuals, groups and organizations of the agrarian societies had changes. Along with it, changed the pattern of family life, work-atmosphere, and political environment and business culture of the nation.
• Initially technologies were developed for lessening the strain on human muscles and designed for illiterate labour force. More a person withdrew from physical labor, more honored; civilized and qualified he/she was considered by modern society. The trend of easy and quick money started.
• Machines were heavy, rigid and capital intensive. Work was unskilled, standardized and broken into simplest possible operations. All the workers were equally good, easily interchangeable like parts of a machine. Numerous unemployed people were always available. The workers were kept ignorant and powerless by keeping information restricted. These workers were chained to industrial discipline. Their life in the factory was tightly regimented.
• Aversion towards traditional occupation was due to-
• Low wages.
  • Attraction for easy money,
  • More a person withdrew from physical labour, more honoured, civilized and qualified, he/she was regarded by modern world.
  • Ignorance and unawareness about opportunities available.
• Positive effects of Industrialization – Positive effects of industrialization included –
• Large scale production of goods.
• Urbanization or expansion of the cities.
• Machines have helped people do their work more quickly. It has saved their time and labour.
• Demand for raw material increased.
• Productivity has been optimized,
• Improved access of food and other items to the customers.
• Considerable rise in the standard of living of the people.
• Surplus products results in cheaper prices.
• Significant population growth.
• Industrialization developed mass-culture – Later on Industrialization has developed culture of mass capital, mass production, mass-consumption, mass media and mass democracy.
• Adverse effects – Adverse effects of the Process of Industrialization under the guidance of colonial rulers had been –
• There was a growing aversion towards many traditional occupations done manually. It affected Indian handicrafts, cottage industry, fine arts and local skills, and indigenous genius adversely. It led to the decay of village Handicrafts industry as competition was directly with the cheap machine goods.
  1. The colonial rule destroyed textile and handicrafts industries through their policies.
  1. Flooded the market with machine made goods cheaper than hand-made products.
  1. Indian farmers were forced to produce cotton plantation so that it can fuel English factories. It primarily remained producing country which ultimately retarded the industrial development of the country in its early period.
  1. Britain policy of ‘divide and rule’ to perpetuate its rule, led to inter-caste/inter communal rivalries, inter group conflicts, which has done irreparable damage to India.
  1. Money the prime motivator of workforce – It has shifted the attention of the people to generate more wealth. People were desperately dependent on money for their survival. Money became the prime motivator of workforce, the main tool of social control and political power. (Toffler, Power shift)
• Process of Mechanization – Rapid expansion of the means of transport and communication led jajmani system in a decline. It has made easy for individuals to seek job or other occupation of their liking outside their village. Labour force was no longer interested int Jajmani arrangements.
• Traditional jobs hijacked by educated entrepreneurs – In comparison to new modern occupation, traditional occupations appeared to people derogatory, less paying, more hazardous and time-consuming. Many traditional occupations became obsolete. Many castes of Artisans, Craftsmen, and Agriculture abandoned their traditional work. They either migrated to cities as industrial labour or became agriculture labour. Outcome was casualty of workers first, then their work-style commitment, motivation and work-culture.  India was reduced to a position of producer of raw material and market of products made in UK.   
• Very few could join modern occupations in the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity. Majority of them could stick to their traditional occupations considering menial work derogatory. They had no option, but to join the band agricultural labour, industrial workers, marginal labour or increase the number of   unemployed or under employed. Industrial revolution had increased disparity between Haves and Have-nots. 
• Some young entrepreneurs, having education, money and awareness, did market survey and hijacked many discarded traditional occupations. They modernized such disdained and contemptuous jobs like mechanization of fishing or leather industry and made them profit oriented. Even less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been hijacked by educated middle class. They re-christened them as saloon, laundry etc and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. _.
• Biased Census operation – Earlier, the Hindu Society was classified into four Varnas embracing numerous castes and sub-castes within its fold on the basis of their occupations. First volume of Risley’s census Man in 1901 (the Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute) drew the attention of all to the diversity of Indian society and multiplicity of castes and sub-castes in India. It noted, “The entire framework of native life in India is made up of groups of castes and tribes, and status and conduct of individuals are, largely, determined by the rules of the group, to which he belonged.”
• Risley’s census had changed the older socio-economic pattern in a fundamental way, giving rigidity to social stratification and hierarchical ranking. It recorded and put in order numerous occupational castes in hierarchical order. Through legal process, it gave them a new separate and distinct identity as – Brahmins, Non-Brahmins, Muslims, Anglo-Indians, untouchables, non-Hindu Communities and backward castes”.             
• Importance to “Power in numbers” through electoral politics – Start of Electoral politics, along with Census operation during the beginning of 20^th century, has given rise to “Power in numbers”. From now onwards, very diplomatically Indian population has been divided into different uncompromising groups “We” and “They”, “Haves and “Have-nots”, “Majority” and “Minority”, Non-Brahmins and Brahmins and caste Hindus.  The introduction of electoral politics gave rise to “Power in numbers”. Later on, in Independent India, it gave political leverage to the non-Brahmin sections of society on account of their numerical strength.
• _.  
• All the developments happened during late 19^th and beginning of 20^th centuries (like faster means of transport, rapid rise in the lower caste population, coupled with division of lands/property held by well settled families) destroyed the local character of many institutions/systems. Small inter-dependent local castes, confined within a small area earlier, grew in size, embracing a much wider area than before. It drastically changed culture of job-market and pattern of employment.
• Modern education system has given freedom to individuals to choose any field of work/occupation/job for themselves. It has given relief to those, who were not allowed to pursue work of their choice earlier. But at the same time, it has created confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should select. They do not care much for their attitude or aptitude, but give more importance to money or power to control the destiny of others.
• It gave importance and popularity to ‘White collared jobs’ in organized sector. Declaration of English as Official language pushed the masses away from new employment opportunities. Majority of people could neither enter into modern sector, nor could stick to their traditional occupations. Very few of them could join modern occupations. In the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity, most of them had no option, but either to join band of agricultural laborers, industrial workers and marginal labour for their survival or increase number of unemployed or under employed. 
• Emergence of white-collared jobs based on formal education tended to make many traditional occupations obsolete, as they were considered less paying, more hazardous or time consuming. It scattered the efforts, sense of direction and manufacturing skills of millions of artisans, craftsman, weavers etc. There had been casualty of workers first, afterwards their work style, commitment, motivation and culture. They lost their creativity, sense of achievement and pride. Work culture has changed tremendously since then.
• Very few of them could join modern occupations. Majority of people could neither enter into modern sector, nor could stick to their traditional occupations considering the menial work derogatory. In the near absence of industrial, commercial or social service activity, most of them had no option, but either to join band of agricultural labors, industrial workers and marginal labor for their survival or increase number of unemployed or under employed.
• Adverse effects of modern education have been –
• Poverty and disparity have been increased between haves and have-nots. More a person withdraws from manual more respectable he is considered in modern society.
• Modern education system has pushed millions backward in a very subtle manner. Trend to get hold on modern occupations, has led to inter-caste rivalries, social tensions and group conflicts.
• From community based, employment system became individual based.  Earlier employment was through caste affiliations. Now sanctity of caste rules and caste consciousness loosened, as far as employment and work-culture is concerned. Instead of depending on caste for a job, modern education system gave freedom to individuals to select occupation of their own choice.
• Desire to get safe and secure jobs in government has created a large number of new White-collared desk-jobs (of administrators, doctors, engineers, architects, builders, lawyers etc.) and Blue collared jobs in factories etc.
• Access to these jobs depends on formal education, /degrees/diplomas or certificates. Therefore, it could benefit educated “Haves” only.
• Modern system of employment has rendered millions of illiterates or semi-literates jobless, unemployed or underemployed. Modern education forcefully implanted in the minds of educated Indians, venom against caste system and traditional systems and practices linked with it. It blamed traditional arrangements of occupations responsible for peoples’ poverty, misery, deprivation and for creating an iniquitous society, exploitative and oppressive by nature.
• Changes with modernity – Finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable traditional jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected after industrialization and modernization. system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier.
• However, development of complicated systems with modernity, emerged more new kinds of problems in the job-market.
• Traditional way of employment has saved youth from confusion or frustration or unhealthy competition or rivalry on matter of occupation/work. It has avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society. aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector.
• There is confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should choose. Selecting those jobs, which are beyond their reach, or for which neither they have capacity, aptitude or attitude, has pushed millions of young-men towards unemployment or underemployment.
• Earlier, under normal circumstances, socio-economic and political activities and its work culture were in tune with the needs and objectives of the society.
• Today, there is a cut throat competition for getting admissions in institutions of higher education and training. Majority of youth are more interests in pay-package. They do not bother much about aptitude and attitude or about channelizing their further education and training accordingly.
• In traditional jajmani arrangements, occupational- training and guidance were given by elders which had led ancient and medieval India to excellence. Today, it is very difficult to get admission and attain necessary qualifications for the profession of their choice choice due to acute shortage of the formal institutions to one of the reasons being population explosion. They have no option, but to take admissions wherever and in which discipline they get. It limits their opportunities to do what they want to do and attain necessary knowledge, qualification and mindset needed prior to entering into a profession.
• Aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector. Now modern youth spend their precious, creative and energetic time and efforts in constant search and pursuit of their dream jobs. It has given rise to stiff competition for each and every post in modern organized sector. By proper career planning and policies, this valuable time could have utilized for constructive purposes.
• Less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been overtaken by educated middle class. and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. Some young educated entrepreneurs have done market survey and have hijacked many of the discarded traditional occupations. They have modernized and re-christened such disdained and contemptuous jobs as saloon, laundry etc.  They have done mechanization of some jobs like fishing or leather industry and have made them profit oriented.
• Emergence of organized and unorganized sectors of modern job-market has eroded traditional pattern of employment. Organized sector has become the backbone of modern economy. Organised sector facilitates adequate means of livelihood and specified position in social, economic and political world. In contrast, majority of people working in unorganized sector find themselves helpless and vulnerable, as their awareness and knowledge about the system is very limited.   Many times, they do not get even due wages for their labour.
• It has stratified Indian society into following water-tight compartments, class-wise: –
  • Lower class – People, for whom work was essential for survival.
  • Middle class – People, who were educated and loved to work for self-advancement and prosperity, salaried people, mostly employed in organized and
• Upper class – Which lives on other’s labour, benefiting from their position in society.
• Haves and Have-nots – Modern Indian society is now divided into two water-tight compartments. An unbridgeable gulf has been created between Haves and Have-nots. Traditional work-culture was more concerned for have-nots, not by giving them doles but advising them to render their service sincerely and honestly for the benefit of the whole society. Modern occupational system serves more the needs of rich and influential people. There is a cut-throat competition for white-collared jobs. People do not hesitate in making compromises to earn easy and quick money. They have formed their own exclusive society. Creation of an inclusive society seems to be a distant dream, though different types of institutions/NGOS have come up to improve their relationship.
• Haves – On one hand are well-settled rich persons, who come under the category of “Haves”. Process of Industrialization and modernization has given rise to many new occupations. It has given individuals, immense choice to choose their occupation. Accessibility to white-collared jobs is through education, knowledge of English language and number of degrees and certificates. More a person withdrew from physical labour, the more civilized, honoured and qualified he was regarded by the modern society and joins the band of “Haves”. Most of them are industrialists, self-employed professionals, employees/managers in government, private and public sector, contractors, cultivators, traders and businessmen, entrepreneurs etc. They are becoming richer and richer every-day. Haves (India’s top 1%) own more than 40.5% of its total wealth earn a lot, without much labour. (New report of Oxfam)
• Have-nots – On the other hand, are poor (Have-nots), who are unable to afford even basic necessities to survive. Though percentwise, number of poor fell from 36.6% in 2025/2016 to 21.2% in 2019/2021, to about 219%. (m.economictimes.com>News>India). But in absolute number, the number of unemployed, landless labours, illiterates, poor peasants, marginal workers in household industry, domestic servants, unemployed, destitute and poor peasantry has increased enormously due to population explosion.   Millions toil day and night and still find themselves unable to arrange two square meals a day or are unable to secure minimum subsistence requirements for life, health and general awareness, which results usually due to lack of access to resources, right information and approach to overcome it.
• Unhealthy competition – There is neck to neck competition for a few places in educational institutions of repute or in employment, especially in organized sector. Rivalry and bitterness for pelf, power or position is continuously increasing. Total aversion of youth from their traditional occupations and stiff competition elsewhere for employment pushed millions to poverty. It has rendered millions of people unemployed or underemployed, who are now wasting all their efforts and most energetic and creative time of their lives, while hunting for a job.
• Large population of Illiterates and unskilled work-force – ‘Education for all’ and ‘employment for all’ is still a dream. Lack of proper education and training systems combined with illiteracy and lack of skills amongst a large number of people has turned the visions of national development into empty dreams. Only 64.84 people are literate according to 2001 census, (Males – 75.26% and Females – 53.67%). In absolute number, the figure is alarming.  No nation can afford to have a large number of its population to remain illiterate, ignorant and unskilled. Not only the number of illiterates and unskilled is a matter of concern, but also quality and insufficient resources of education and training are the matter of great concern.  Population explosion has put a heavy pressure on available infrastructure of education and training.
• Mishandling of policies at implementation level – Sufferings of have-nots are multiplying because of growing underhandedness, insufficient and ineffective monitoring of projects undertaken for their welfare, corruption, undue pressures of influential groups and unholy alliances.  The poor, who possess only labour and skill, do not get due wages for their labour, because the wage-determination policy of the government does not recognize the value of their knowledge/skill. Some of them are even unable to manage two square meals a day.
• Problem of unemployment in modern India – Aversion of modern youth from their traditional occupations has today rendered millions of them unemployed or underemployed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employments is increasing continuously along with population explosion.  Employment rate in India in April 2023 has increased up to 8.11%, reason being a rise in labour participation rate. Labour participation rate increased from 39.77% in March to 41.98% in April 2023 (Natasha Sommaya. K, Economic Outlook, 01 May 2023). Despite of all the efforts done so far, a large number of people remain under-employed or unemployed. India’s unemployment rate for persons aged 15 and above is about 8.11% in April 2023.
• Unemployment or under-employment is continuously increasing in absolute numbers. Major reasons behind increasing unemployment are –
• Rapid growth of population,
• Aversion of modern youth towards traditional occupations.
• Dominance of agriculture, Agriculture is a seasonal occupation.
• Inadequate economic growth
• Fall of Cottage and small industries,
• Immobility of labour,
• Defects in education system.
• For solving the problem of unemployment, it is necessary to impart new knowledge, new skills and to inculcate new attitudes in the youth of the nation through a well-planned and systematic arrangement of both ‘education’ and ‘training’. A well-planned education and training system would enable youth to get employed gainfully, to contribute to and guide the social changes and development into desired direction. It would help the nation to achieve its goals within time and cost-parameters.
• Corrupt practices – Recent political turmoil has adversely affected the whole atmosphere. Centralization of power has corrupted the whole system. A few Individuals and groups, with political, money or muscle power control the destiny of millions and have say in almost every walk of national life. They are working day and night to deny justice to common men and upright citizens. Favouritism, in-discipline, violence, corruption, lure for easy money, nepotism and chase of materialism based on ruthless competition have weakened the social fabric beyond repair. The erosion of basic moral and human values has turned the life of men, “nasty, brutish and short”.
• Some undesirable changes happened in recent past has changed the character, role and inter-relationship of some main constituents of the national elites – political, executive, legislators, businessmen, organised workers, surplus farmers, bureaucrats and biased media persons.  Sectoral and regional imbalances are the sources of great social and psychological tensions. Level of productivity has remained low, leaving little surplus for saving and capital formation. Absence of enough capital, able and honest leadership, lack of efficient and clean administration, enough skilled personnel, ineffective implementation of development policies are the reasons of persistent economic backwardness.
• All powerful Government making common man a pigmy – Being a Government of Welfare and Development, instead of being a facilitator, it has assumed absolute power by taken on itself responsibilityof generating/creating/providing employment to all. Instead of teaching the youth “how to fish”, government’ prefers to “give fish” (jobs) to them. It has centralized control systems and made government ‘Messiah’ and downsized sovereign citizens in position of helpless ‘Pigmies’. People find it difficult to move even a step further without the blessings or support of authorities. Modern system has given freedom to modern youth freedom to decide about their future work without making them mature enough understand.
• Populist policies to catch vote-banks – In order to create vote banks discriminatory populist policies are being pursued in the name of ‘equality’ or ‘social justice’. More emphasis is being given in pursuing abstract and emotional issues rather than solving the real problems of people. Attempts for social changes make a virtue of narrow loyalties of caste and religion, generating sub-cultures like favoritism, lure for easy money, nepotism and, in-discipline in the society. Caste and communal conflicts are increasing. There are sectarian and regional imbalances generating social and psychological tensions.
• Technological advancement – Scientific and technological developments has endowed human with tremendous power both to preserve and destroy. At slightest provocation, people do not hesitate to unleash destructive powers accessible to them. That is one of the reasons for increase in the incidents of violence and crimes.
• Changes with modernity – Finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable traditional jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected after industrialization and modernization. system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier.
• However, development of complicated systems with modernity, emerged more new kinds of problems in the job-market.
• Traditional way of employment has saved youth from confusion or frustration or unhealthy competition or rivalry on matter of occupation/work. It has avoided rivalry or bitterness for pelf, power or position amongst different sections of society. aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector.
• There is confusion in the minds of modern youth as to what career/profession, they should choose. Selecting those jobs, which are beyond their reach, or for which neither they have capacity, aptitude or attitude, has pushed millions of young-men towards unemployment or underemployment.
• Earlier, under normal circumstances, socio-economic and political activities and its work culture were in tune with the needs and objectives of the society.
• Today, there is a cut throat competition for getting admissions in institutions of higher education and training. Majority of youth are more interests in pay-package. They do not bother much about aptitude and attitude or about channelizing their further education and training accordingly.
• In traditional jajmani arrangements, occupational- training and guidance were given by elders which had led ancient and medieval India to excellence. Today, it is very difficult to get admission and attain necessary qualifications for the profession of their choice choice due to acute shortage of the formal institutions to one of the reasons being population explosion. They have no option, but to take admissions wherever and in which discipline they get. It limits their opportunities to do what they want to do and attain necessary knowledge, qualification and mindset needed prior to entering into a profession.
• Aversion of modern youth from traditional occupation has increased rivalry, bitterness and neck to neck competition between different sections of society for getting access to fewer jobs of power and pelf in organised sector. Now modern youth spend their precious, creative and energetic time and efforts in constant search and pursuit of their dream jobs. It has given rise to stiff competition for each and every post in modern organized sector. By proper career planning and policies, this valuable time could have utilized for constructive purposes.
• Less capital-intensive occupations like that of barber or washer-men have been overtaken by educated middle class. and employed those poor traditional workers, who were earlier practicing such occupations independently. Some young educated entrepreneurs have done market survey and have hijacked many of the discarded traditional occupations. They have modernized and re-christened such disdained and contemptuous jobs as saloon, laundry etc.  They have done mechanization of some jobs like fishing or leather industry and have made them profit oriented.
• Emergence of organized and unorganized sectors of modern job-market has eroded traditional pattern of employment. Organized sector has become the backbone of modern economy. Organised sector facilitates adequate means of livelihood and specified position in social, economic and political world. In contrast, majority of people working in unorganized sector find themselves helpless and vulnerable, as their awareness and knowledge about the system is very limited.   Many times, they do not get even due wages for their labour.
• It has stratified Indian society into following water-tight compartments, class-wise: –
  • Lower class – People, for whom work was essential for survival.
  • Middle class – People, who were educated and loved to work for self-advancement and prosperity, salaried people, mostly employed in organized and
• Upper class – Which lives on other’s labour, benefiting from their position in society.
• Haves and Have-nots – Modern Indian society is now divided into two water-tight compartments. An unbridgeable gulf has been created between Haves and Have-nots. Traditional work-culture was more concerned for have-nots, not by giving them doles but advising them to render their service sincerely and honestly for the benefit of the whole society. Modern occupational system serves more the needs of rich and influential people. There is a cut-throat competition for white-collared jobs. People do not hesitate in making compromises to earn easy and quick money. They have formed their own exclusive society. Creation of an inclusive society seems to be a distant dream, though different types of institutions/NGOS have come up to improve their relationship.
• Haves – On one hand are well-settled rich persons, who come under the category of “Haves”. Process of Industrialization and modernization has given rise to many new occupations. It has given individuals, immense choice to choose their occupation. Accessibility to white-collared jobs is through education, knowledge of English language and number of degrees and certificates. More a person withdrew from physical labour, the more civilized, honoured and qualified he was regarded by the modern society and joins the band of “Haves”. Most of them are industrialists, self-employed professionals, employees/managers in government, private and public sector, contractors, cultivators, traders and businessmen, entrepreneurs etc. They are becoming richer and richer every-day. Haves (India’s top 1%) own more than 40.5% of its total wealth earn a lot, without much labour. (New report of Oxfam)
• Have-nots – On the other hand, are poor (Have-nots), who are unable to afford even basic necessities to survive. Though percentwise, number of poor fell from 36.6% in 2025/2016 to 21.2% in 2019/2021, to about 219%. (m.economictimes.com>News>India). But in absolute number, the number of unemployed, landless labours, illiterates, poor peasants, marginal workers in household industry, domestic servants, unemployed, destitute and poor peasantry has increased enormously due to population explosion.   Millions toil day and night and still find themselves unable to arrange two square meals a day or are unable to secure minimum subsistence requirements for life, health and general awareness, which results usually due to lack of access to resources, right information and approach to overcome it.
• Unhealthy competition – There is neck to neck competition for a few places in educational institutions of repute or in employment, especially in organized sector. Rivalry and bitterness for pelf, power or position is continuously increasing. Total aversion of youth from their traditional occupations and stiff competition elsewhere for employment pushed millions to poverty. It has rendered millions of people unemployed or underemployed, who are now wasting all their efforts and most energetic and creative time of their lives, while hunting for a job.
• Large population of Illiterates and unskilled work-force – ‘Education for all’ and ‘employment for all’ is still a dream. Lack of proper education and training systems combined with illiteracy and lack of skills amongst a large number of people has turned the visions of national development into empty dreams. Only 64.84 people are literate according to 2001 census, (Males – 75.26% and Females – 53.67%). In absolute number, the figure is alarming.  No nation can afford to have a large number of its population to remain illiterate, ignorant and unskilled. Not only the number of illiterates and unskilled is a matter of concern, but also quality and insufficient resources of education and training are the matter of great concern.  Population explosion has put a heavy pressure on available infrastructure of education and training.
• Mishandling of policies at implementation level – Sufferings of have-nots are multiplying because of growing underhandedness, insufficient and ineffective monitoring of projects undertaken for their welfare, corruption, undue pressures of influential groups and unholy alliances.  The poor, who possess only labour and skill, do not get due wages for their labour, because the wage-determination policy of the government does not recognize the value of their knowledge/skill. Some of them are even unable to manage two square meals a day.
• Problem of unemployment in modern India – Aversion of modern youth from their traditional occupations has today rendered millions of them unemployed or underemployed. Jobs are fewer and demand for employments is increasing continuously along with population explosion.  Employment rate in India in April 2023 has increased up to 8.11%, reason being a rise in labour participation rate. Labour participation rate increased from 39.77% in March to 41.98% in April 2023 (Natasha Sommaya. K, Economic Outlook, 01 May 2023). Despite of all the efforts done so far, a large number of people remain under-employed or unemployed. India’s unemployment rate for persons aged 15 and above is about 8.11% in April 2023.
• Unemployment or under-employment is continuously increasing in absolute numbers. Major reasons behind increasing unemployment are –
• Rapid growth of population,
• Aversion of modern youth towards traditional occupations.
• Dominance of agriculture, Agriculture is a seasonal occupation.
• Inadequate economic growth
• Fall of Cottage and small industries,
• Immobility of labour,
• Defects in education system.
• For solving the problem of unemployment, it is necessary to impart new knowledge, new skills and to inculcate new attitudes in the youth of the nation through a well-planned and systematic arrangement of both ‘education’ and ‘training’. A well-planned education and training system would enable youth to get employed gainfully, to contribute to and guide the social changes and development into desired direction. It would help the nation to achieve its goals within time and cost-parameters.
• Corrupt practices – Recent political turmoil has adversely affected the whole atmosphere. Centralization of power has corrupted the whole system. A few Individuals and groups, with political, money or muscle power control the destiny of millions and have say in almost every walk of national life. They are working day and night to deny justice to common men and upright citizens. Favouritism, in-discipline, violence, corruption, lure for easy money, nepotism and chase of materialism based on ruthless competition have weakened the social fabric beyond repair. The erosion of basic moral and human values has turned the life of men, “nasty, brutish and short”.
• Some undesirable changes happened in recent past has changed the character, role and inter-relationship of some main constituents of the national elites – political, executive, legislators, businessmen, organised workers, surplus farmers, bureaucrats and biased media persons.  Sectoral and regional imbalances are the sources of great social and psychological tensions. Level of productivity has remained low, leaving little surplus for saving and capital formation. Absence of enough capital, able and honest leadership, lack of efficient and clean administration, enough skilled personnel, ineffective implementation of development policies are the reasons of persistent economic backwardness.
• All powerful Government making common man a pigmy – Being a Government of Welfare and Development, instead of being a facilitator, it has assumed absolute power by taken on itself responsibilityof generating/creating/providing employment to all. Instead of teaching the youth “how to fish”, government’ prefers to “give fish” (jobs) to them. It has centralized control systems and made government ‘Messiah’ and downsized sovereign citizens in position of helpless ‘Pigmies’. People find it difficult to move even a step further without the blessings or support of authorities. Modern system has given freedom to modern youth freedom to decide about their future work without making them mature enough understand.
• Populist policies to catch vote-banks – In order to create vote banks discriminatory populist policies are being pursued in the name of ‘equality’ or ‘social justice’. More emphasis is being given in pursuing abstract and emotional issues rather than solving the real problems of people. Attempts for social changes make a virtue of narrow loyalties of caste and religion, generating sub-cultures like favoritism, lure for easy money, nepotism and, in-discipline in the society. Caste and communal conflicts are increasing. There are sectarian and regional imbalances generating social and psychological tensions.
• Technological advancement – Scientific and technological developments has endowed human with tremendous power both to preserve and destroy. At slightest provocation, people do not hesitate to unleash destructive powers accessible to them. That is one of the reasons for increase in the incidents of violence and crimes.
• Occupations and work-culture in Independent India – No doubt, traditional Jajmani arrangements of occupations has been weakened after Independence. Many new kinds of occupations, white-collared and blue-collared, have been continuously added to the traditional jobs of pre-industrial-society of earlier days, such as in IT industry, manufacturing arena, automobiles industry, pharmaceuticals sectors, construction business and telecommunication sectors etc. Access to these jobs depends on formal education, certificates/degrees/diplomas. For getting a job, or further their career prospects, individuals have to learn and hone their knowledge and skills in formal centres of education and training. They have to attain certificates/diplomas from formal training centres to get employment or to further their future prospects.
• From community-based employment system, it has become individual based. It gives to all its citizens liberty, equality, and fraternity. It gives full freedom to individuals to select any job of their liking.
• Industrialization and modernization have widened horizons for modern generation. Many new careers emerged in the job-market. Today there are ample of choices in matter of profession. A youth can choose an innovative and creative career. Careers in gemstone designing, mass media, fashion designing, legal profession or in management are becoming very popular. Specialization in each area has again created in each area many new opportunities. Only in present neck to neck competitive world, an individual requires to attain necessary qualifications.
• Now, India is a democratic country, having faith in the concepts of “Welfare State” and “Development administration”. It has all the resources, a nation needs for development – men money and material, most important amongst the three being human resource. Its total labour-force is about half a million. Pace of development was quite slow immediately after Independence. There were many constraints at that time. For a long time, there were very few options that ensured a secure and successful career for educated youth like government services, medicine, engineering or teaching. Despite all the constraints, India has not only picked up the backlog, it has missed during first two industrial revolutions, but by the time third industrial revolution happened during 1970s, it emerged as one of the most successful in the world after third great information technology revolution.
• It is estimated that by 2020, India will have the largest and youngest labour force in the world. Total labour-force is about half a million. Their average age will be less than 30 years. There is no dearth of talent, intelligence, quality or knowledge in any given area. There is tremendous amount of skilled and unskilled manpower, all kinds of raw materials, a good legal system, a huge market and potential to export virtually everything, provided the cost of its inputs are kept at international levels. India is the 11th largest economy in the world and is 4th largest purchasing power parity.
• It is a land of entrepreneurship with largest number of self-employed. About 52% of Indians are self-employed, about 55% in rural communities and 41% in urban areas. Many of these (about 20%, according to the international labor organization) are at the bottom of pyramid.
• Since 1990, the workforce is facing tremendous pressures due to globalization and liberalization of world economy and consequent structural adjustment. The shift is more towards irregular, casual, temporary or contractual employment affecting adversely the quality and condition of employment. There are challenges of talent crisis, rising multi-generational workforce, increase in the global worker mobility, organizational changes and cultural issues emerging from the fast pace of business changes of the past decade. Manufacturing and service sectors would provide more lasting results.
• Present Prime Minister Modi has said, while describing India’s role in IT sector all-over the world, that earlier, in the eyes of Western society, India was supposed to be the land of ‘mysticism, poverty and snake-charmers’. Now it is known as a nation, which plays with the “Mouse”. Since the early 1990s, the Indian IT industry has been growing at a phenomenal rate with several phases of growth and development over the last three decades. Digital technology, Artificial Intelligence, Cloud Computing, etc., are all common words today. Bangalore, one of the most dynamic cities in the world, also known as the Silicon Valley of Asia, is in India.
• During recent global financial and economic turmoil, India has shown that it has talent for creativity in the face of adversity. It has the capacity to emerge without much difficulty from the crisis. Bringing together India’s creativity in entrepreneurship and youthful dynamism could lead to sustained inclusive growth and overcome the recent economic slowdown.

Neither traditional jajmani system nor modern system of occupations flawless – Historical development points out that jajmani system worked well, till the society was simple and gave importance to moral values. Now present-day youth have been caught within the vicious circle of modernity. It seems very difficult for them to come out the web of modernity. After Independence of India, finely balanced, sometimes strained, viable jajmani system of supply and demand (1947) got adversely affected. Processes of industrialization and modernization have drastically changed this traditional system of occupations/employment and work culture of India. It could not work as efficiently and effectively as it did earlier. Now, everything is moving very fast, in this space age. Knowledge after the process industrialization and modernization especially after revolution in information technology, has increased much faster than human ability to handle it.

What to do – Consecutive Governments of Independent India are moving in circles to find out full-proof solution for the present problems of unemployment and poverty. But still it seems very difficult for it to come out the web of modernity. While trying, authorities have ignored simple solutions of day today problems of common-men.

As early as Dec.10, 1919, Gandhiji wrote in Young India, “The immediate problem before us is not how to run the government of the country, but how to feed and clothe ourselves.”  In 1964, Shastriji, while taking charge as PM, has said, “Of all the problems facing us, none is more than that of the dire poverty, in which tens of millions of our countrymen continue to live.” Circumstances of last two centuries, earlier because of the apathy of alien rulers and now unprincipled politics to create more-banks, have led the nation towards politicization of caste and its systems. Agony of “Have-nots” remains almost the same – deprived and exploited, earlier because of alien rulers and now because of ruthless and valueless politics.

Combination of new knowledge and positive points of traditional arrangements may bring positive results. Earlier some occupations, which were viewed with disdain and contempt by modern society, have been hijacked by educated and smart persons. They did market surveys, hijacked many traditional occupations and made them profit oriented, some were modernized like mechanization of fishing or leather industry. And some of them such as of barber, washerman etc., have been re-christened as saloon, laundry etc. Now they themselves employ poor traditional workers, earlier practicing such occupations independently.

In the 21^st century, drastic changes are happening every-day at a very fast speed with modernity. It has have brought both prosperity and poverty simultaneously.  Government should make maximum utilization of available resources of men, money and material within minimum time and cost limits. It should do a thorough research to assess the demand of work-force in Agriculture sector, Service-sector, Industrial sector or in the sphere of infrastructure etc. And then create required jobs in each area. At present, to facilitate more employment opportunities, Government’s focuses more on creating large number of jobs, whether job- market needs more people or not. It puts extra burden on national budget.

For proper treatment of the aliment, correct diagnosis is required. Modernity has generated many new kinds of problems. It has weakened Jajmani arrangements and its work-culture to a large extent without taking any notice of its plus points like division of labour, combination of inter-dependence in socio-economic life and self-reliance in personal life, understanding and cooperation between employer and employees, learning in a natural way within their families under training and guidance of their ‘elders’ without investment, transfer of skills through practice and experience; not through formal classroom lectures, which often kills the originality and verve of the people, clear vision of rights and duties at individual-level and at community level.

There are certain points in Jajmani system, which should be appreciated, like its principles of “Division of Labour” “give and take relationship”, “Inclusive nature”, “Everyone’s Support, Everyone’s Effort, and Everyone’s Development (Sabka Saath, Sabka Prayaas and Sabka Vikaas). It automatically de-centralizes the authority and controls its misuse. The separation of rights and duties combined with the “principle of inter-dependence” develops its own system of checks and balances over arbitrary use of authority. It has “Decentralized authority” and guides all sections of society to follow “self-discipline”. It develops a clear-cut vision of rights and duties/responsibilities of each social group individually and collectively according to the requirements of different occupations at different points of time. It channels efforts, energies and capacities of different sections of society in a definite direction and inspires people to do their duties sincerely, honestly and to try for action par excellence. Every occupational group is an independent entity, having its own hierarchy, customs, traditions, value system and rights and duties. It assures that no occupation is high or humble, whether of a priest, warrior, Shudra or yogi were equally important for the society. Therefore, all occupations are right, respectable and worth pursuing.

Conclusion – Once changed, times could never go back to the earlier times. However, fusion of old and new can always be done after analysing their pros and cons. Modern developments in the spheres of science and technology along with the time-proofed values and systems of traditionalism can be combined. It has been seen India has always been a pool of talents. Some have wisdom/knowledge, some have organizing power and some having skills. had worked well till the life was simple and people had some regards for moral values. It has become weak now because modern way of life has become quite complex, mechanized and artificial. People have gone far away from the nature and confined themselves indoors within the cocoon of their comfort zone.

Don’t leave traditional occupations abruptly – Though modern India has given full freedom to individuals choose a job of their liking. First, they should make themselves mature and capable enough to understand what they desire, what can they do and how they can enable themselves utilize the available opportunities (‘to hook the fish’). They should not out-rightly reject the option of following traditional professions.

Even now, many smart individuals prefer to follow their family occupations. And they are doing very well. It has been seen that a Marwari, traditionally belonging to business community, invests his money in share market with more ease and confidence than a graduate from other communities possessing a degree in business management. In 21st century, the trend of following family occupations is increasing continuously in many sectors, like the Film world, legal profession, business world.

Deep study of job-market by pane of experts – There should be a panel of experts to guide the task of research in this field, to have a close review and study of performance problems and then analyse the present and future needs of the society, individual-wise, class-wise, level-wise and function-wise. What is needed is –

• Rational Division of all functions and occupations are needed for present-day requirements and future growth of society
• Assign the work on the basis of natural endowments, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, skills, personal needs and other innate characteristics.
• Decentralization of authority and resources.
• Develop automatic system of checks and balances.

Sound system of ‘Education’ and ‘Training’ needed -Under present circumstances, creation of a sound system of education and training is urgently required to prepare modern youth to meet challenges of 21^st century and to deal with present competitive and complex life-style. Sound system of education and training would improve performance of new entrants and contribute to organizational growth.

Age of specialization – Gone are the days to depend on Jacksonian theory that with the help of common sense and little intelligence, one can perform any kind of work. This is an age of specialization. Knowledge, skills and the need for specialization in present space age have been growing faster than human ability to handle it. As specialisation increases more, as knowledge advances and as new type of occupations emerges into the scene. Modern life-style has become quite complex, mechanized, and artificial.

Neither education nor training alone can serve the purpose. Focus on quantitative increase has subverted all the attempts to improve the quality of teaching and learning or preparing youth for employment by developing the required skills. It has led to continuous fall in the standard of higher education. Through a sound system of education and training, knowledge, understanding and attitudes of the job-seekers can be improved. they will be better adjusted to their working environment. Proper `training’ in newly emerged areas of employment would help trainees to acquire and apply knowledge and skills, which they do not possess, but are needed by the occupations, of which they are a part. Thus, it would improve the output of their work – quantitatively and qualitatively.

To bring improvement in job-market atmosphere and make job-seekers employable, Government should pay more attention to employment needs and encourage entrepreneurship. Gaining mere knowledge is not the purpose of learning. There is a need for ‘education and training for all’ and through it, to develop an understanding of social and economic problems and of society and public affairs generally. Combination of education and Training can prepare youth for doing their jobs efficiently. Both are necessary inculcating knowledge and modifying behaviour, attitudes and beliefs.

As Khalil Gibran has said, a little knowledge that acts is worth more than much knowledge that is inactive. Also, one whose knowledge is confined to books cannot use his knowledge wealth when the need for them arises. Knowledge, the object of knowledge and application of the knowledge – all the three are equally important for motivating to take a wise action.

Thanks to recent advances in science and technology, any kind of information in any area of human knowledge or about any aspects of life is easily accessible, that too at the door-step of each and every individual. It has made the present generation much more informed about the developments happening anywhere in the whole world and knowledgeable than previous generations. But only gaining knowledge is not enough. Khalil Gibran has pointed out that a little knowledge that acts is worth more than much knowledge that remains inactive. A person, whose knowledge is confined to books, is unable to use his wealth of knowledge, when the need arises. Knowledge, the object of knowledge and application of the knowledge – all the three are equally important for motivating to take a wise action.

‘Vision of skill India’ – The vision of present Prime Minister Narendra Modi about ‘Skill India’ is appreciable. So is Modi’s government’s Agni path scheme for recruitment, training and posting in Armed forces. If implemented properly, it will enable the present-day youth more disciplined and to meet present day challenges by imparting new knowledge, new skills, and inculcating new attitudes and new spirit in newly recruited personnel.  

Opposition political parties blame Modi government saying it has failed to create jobs for about 400-500 million illiterates and 200-250 million semi-ill-literates, that too, in its organized sector. According to a West Street Journal, every year 1.2 crores of youth join labour force. But only 55 lacs get jobs. In any democratic welfare state, government plays the role of a facilitator. It is not responsible to generate/create enough jobs for all of its unemployed citizens. At present, Government is the biggest employer in the organized sector of job-market. On public demand, it has already created much more jobs in the government than are required.

As Narayan Murthy points out “If we want to give jobs to 400-500 million illiterates and 200-250 million semi-ill-literates, we have to go in for low-tech manufacturing that does not require high levels of education. … This is how China, Japan, Taiwan and South Korea did it”.                                                                  

 In a changing world, nothing can be more disabling than its isolation of past. Nothing is more needed than the constant interpretation of what was seen then in terms of what is seen now. Today must be a constant challenge to the opinions, systems and practices of yester times. Therefore, people should not retain a system or outlook, which in the light of modern times can be replaced by a better form and which could be more effective and beneficial to the people. At the same time, society must not sacrifice an ancient form or system to an unreasoning passion for change.

Reform, Perform and Transform III

“In modern understanding of ‘caste-system’, element of ‘caste’ is highlighted, and element of ‘system’ is suppressed.” Lata Sinha

“Traditional living is like an anchor, which keeps the boat of society in safe harbor. Now in the absence of that anchor, that boat is at the mercy of wild waves on a stormy ocean.” Lata Sinha

Introduction – Many sociologists have regarded Caste system as the most scientific system of stratification of a society. Don Martindale says, “Caste and Hinduism succeeded in doing in India, what no state, no conqueror and no economy was able to do – the establishment of a single unified system of society throughout the whole of India, accommodating numerous semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places), a system of society, which was able to comprise a greater range of local differences in a single system than any society has previously accomplished.”  And

“Through caste system, India has simultaneously accommodated “it to an almost endlessly varied system of semi-autonomous community and at the same time, it brings considerable unity, harmony and condition of peace.” …. And it “succeeded in wielding an enormously varied plurality of semi-autonomous communities arising at many times and in many places and adopting themselves to many different conditions into a single system of society…” (Don Martindale, India since 1947, p 39)

Caste as a mechanism to assimilate desirous social groups without conversion – Caste-system has been used as a mechanism to include other social groups as a whole under the umbrella of Hinduism without any conversion. Caste-system assigns each incoming new group a separate caste identity. The system neither prevents new groups to join and become an integral part of Hindu society, nor allows them to disturb its existing internal social order. Also it allows new incoming groups to develop itself according to their internal rhythm. It does not annihilate their own faith, originality, internal order, way of living, customs, culture or language. Instead, it gives opportunity to all incoming groups and freedom to prosper or make any change in their systems.

Caste stratifies society, in a natural way -Ever society devises its own principles for stratification. Individuals differ from each other in natural endowments, intelligence, aptitudes, attitudes, skills, personal needs and other innate characteristics. Such differences are apt to give rise to the formations of different social groups and systems. For coordinated functioning of different sections of society together, keeping its whole system fit and functional, and taking care of the interests of its people, stratification of society becomes necessary. Basis of stratification differ from place to place. It may be on basis of class, caste, religion, region, language or occupation. Variables like occupation, education, qualities, income, wealth, ownership of land, property etc. decide status of various social groups within society. Their ranking is usually judged by its political standing vis-à-vis church/temples/ mosques, form of government, or mannerism, reputation, language, or influence of the group within society.

Class based Western societies – Western societies are stratified on basis of class. Its focus is on individual. Individuals of same economic and cultural level form one social group/class. Society is usually divided into two groups, powerful and powerless. To which an individual belongs to, depends on wealth, one possesses. Ranking of a person is determined by his material success and control over power/authority. Wealthy class is usually powerful and controls the destiny of poor people. In general, it divides individuals into three class –

• Upper class – Individuals with great influence, wealth and prestige belongs to upper class.
• Lower class – It includes working class, poor, alienated and marginalized persons. It constitutes majority of people in any nation.
• Middle Class – In between the two, comes Middle Class.

Colonial rulers have vehemently criticized caste system. Many deformities have been developed into caste system. British rulers drew the attention of Indian intelligentsia towards those weaknesses and carefully avoided telling its strong points. They developed a complex in Indian minds about efficacy of caste system.

• Its being highly stratified – British thinkers could not appreciate the role of caste system in integrating different tribes, groups and communities together under one system for centuries. Instead of converting new groups into Hindu society and thrusting on them its own values, thoughts, processes, superstructures and practices. Caste system presents unique example in the world history. All the incoming groups have always been welcomed and accommodated in Hinduism on their own terms. It legitimized their beliefs, behavior patterns and life-styles with freedom to evolve and change according to their internal rhythm.
• Discriminatory system – It is an anomaly that British, who themselves played discriminatory practices by keeping their railway compartments, waiting rooms, parks, clubs, hotels, places of other entertainment and residences segregated, criticized caste system as being discriminatory.
• Disregard for menial work – It was not the caste system, but industrial revolution, which encouraged people to hate or escape from menial work. The creation of new white collared jobs by British developed the attitude to discredit manual work.

Some of the Salient Features of Caste System – Caste system has travelled a very long distance since then. Many changes, both good and bad, have taken place in the system. Some of the good features of caste system are –

• Automatic checks and balances – Decentralized self-regulated systems managed various activities in social, intellectual, political, and economic life and controlled its malfunctioning or dis-functioning. There was hardly any question of all India tyranny of any caste group. There was not a single group identifiable as very strong-dominating all the others, or as an enemy to defeat. Laws remained unmodified and flexible with the capacity to adapt to local customs and situations. People in power and position cared for the lower castes in order to acquire and retain local followers. The system made upper castes generous in matters of food, drinks and loans, when required. The plurality of society provided automatic checks and balances and controlled the arbitrariness or unbalanced growth of power of any group. Indian peasantry in UP, Bihar and MP were armed. In fact, non-Kshatriya peasant provided leadership of most armed bands, which were numerically predominant and economically and politically strong at the village level. The monopoly of powerful peasant was a reality of the rural life of Medieval India. The Brahmin strongholds were the centers of learning. The floating population, consisting groups like Gujjars, Bhattis, Rajput rangers, who remained outside caste system, were so strong, that they terrorized settled agriculturists for centuries. Forests, which competed with arable land in size and importance, till the 18th century, gave shelter and food to large sections of society and served as havens for those in search of escape from society. Thus, from time to time, and place to place, different castes rose and fell in their social order, some died out and new ones were formed.
• More stress on duties – The system clearly specifies duties, privileges and restrictions of each role separately and managed relationship with others. It encourages self-discipline, self-control and self-direction. Sprees on one’s responsibilities/duties rather than on rights, combined with principle of inter- dependence provides its own system of checks and balances over arbitrary use of one’s authority and leads to automatic decentralization of authority.
• Flexibility and adaptability – Caste system took different shades and meaning with the changing times and places. Once changed, it never returned to its original form. Its adaptability and absorptive nature has pronged its life. The system evolved its structures and systems leisurely and kept on coping with the slow changes, time brought in. Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether different from what exists today. It is still in a transient phase. It is different in context of village, locality, region or religion.
• High level of intelligence and specialization – Caste-system worked so well and efficiently in ancient India that when the world was passing through Dark Age, India was full of light. First few centuries are recognized as the golden period of Indian history. Caste system had wisely organized all activities of society properly.
• Acted as a shield – During medieval India, caste system was a major force for failure of Islam, Christianity and other religions to make headway even after mass conversion. Though many evil practices developed in the system during this period, but it acted as a shield for Hindus to retain their cultural identity, while living under alien rule, whether it was of Mughals, Portuguese or British.
• Employment, dignity and honor for all – The unique feature of caste system was that it provided work and employment to everyone. There was no dearth of employment opportunities for persons willing to work. Caste system inspired people to opt for a job according to their attitude and aptitude and do their jobs well, as all worldly honor and spiritual happiness were vested there. It assured the people that proper performance of one’s work, whether high or humble, whether of a priest, warrior, Shudra or yogi were equally important for the society and were, therefore, right, respectable and worth pursuing. It provided the whole society a quality of life.

When the world was passing through the Dark Age, India was full of light. It was known as the Bird of gold. The period before British-rule, arts, commerce, crafts, philosophy and knowledge flourished magnificently. Its people reached a high level of intelligence having specialization in different areas. Many travelers visiting India, from alien lands at different points of time, confirmed that India possessed huge wealth, knowledge, and quality of life. It was a cheerful land. Each person found a niche in the social system.

Reform, Perform and Transform II, Catch Civil Servants Young

Reform, Perform and Transform

20^th Feb 2023

“For the forms of Government, let fools contest,

                          That which is best administered, is best.”

“But what is best, must free man still decide,

Lest leaders gull them, and officials’ ride.’

What is “For any administration to be good and efficient, as a whole, we want right type of men. The quality of men placed in position is more important than laying down of rules and methods of operation.” (Sri C. Rajagopalachari)

Catch them young!

Introduction – There is a section of society, which feels, that today, a reduction of age limit for entering into government services for both general category and reserved category aspirants would be a wonderful and much-needed reform. The age of induction into the civil services should definitely be reduced. When a candidate above 30 years of age is inducted into the civil service, he/she gets a much smaller training period. Like any profession, a civil servant also needs adequate training.

Besides, after a certain age, attitudes harden. Commitment, sincerity, and integrity are some of the essential qualities a civil servant must inculcate, but after an age, it becomes difficult to mold the attitude of candidates during training period. Also, as aspirants grow older and enter into family life, many familial responsibilities are added. Their attention gets diverted, their physical and mental capacities start decreasing gradually at a higher age.

Moreover, frustration develops among those who do not qualify finally after trying again and again, to enter into the government service up till the age of 34, 36 or 38. And for those who succeed, the effective career span is affected, with the result that many retire before reaching up to the top posts in the government.

Solution for these problems may be to ‘Catch them young” for government services and give them adequate foundation and job-oriented training. The age of induction into the civil services should definitely be reduced. Induction of Middle-aged candidates does not give enough time to the government to arrange foundation and on job-training properly.

Induction of middle-aged candidates into government services, gives a much smaller time for further education and training. Like any profession, a civil servant also needs adequate training. Further education and Training of new entrants is necessary not only for knowing more but for behaving differently. They need to be told clearly about their role in administration, their responsibilities, key challenges in their work areas, its solutions and impact of their work on general public and the whole society.

However, it is a politically touchy subject for governments, as reducing the age limit will alienate the unemployed youth in the country, who appear for the exams year after year with the hope of making it to the civil service. No political party or representatives of the people in government i.e., legislators, political leaders are ready to pay a political price for it, lose their vote-banks. Therefore, no political party wants to disturb the status Quo.

Role of Civil services – Bureaucracy/civil service is the pillar, on which good governance rests. Government needs in large numbers, well trained team of dynamic, responsible and visionary and knowledgeable personnel to effectively implement the plans and policies and achieve targeted goals within time and cost parameters depends. The quality and success of governance depend on the nature, behaviour, systems and working style of Civil servants. Exclusive and specialized nature of administrative work and improvement in quality of service demands for expert and up-date knowledge in government servants.

Permanent Link – Civil Services are the only permanent link between successive elected governments. They play a vital role in guiding the social changes and development in desired direction, especially, where society is in a state of transition.

For all practical purposes, power of political chiefs becomes exceedingly formal in matter of governance. They have to listen the advice of the bureaucrats. Good of governance depend on the nature, behaviour, systems and working style of Civil servants.

Dig expert Knowledge – Civil servants, not only dig expert knowledge from the raw material, but give it a shape with a sense of commitment. Together they guide nation’s socio-economic changes into desired direction. They play an important role in policy formulation, decision making. They maintain law and order intact, implement/execute plans and policies purposefully, and achieve targeted goals within time and cost parameters.

Authority without wisdom, a heavy axe without an edge – Government recruit thousands of persons in its administrative/managerial, financial, technical and specialist cadres at different levels every year. While performing its tasks, bureaucracy assumes tremendous power.  Without integrity, authority and intelligence blocks the path of better future.

More the challenges and problems to be tackled, more the pressure is on services, and more it becomes necessary for the government to be careful about selection, training and retention of personnel. Weakening of this pillar may spell disaster [ii] Therefore, Right type of men, at right places and on right time should be recruited in government services.

Right type of men, at right places and on right time – Sri C. Rajagopalachari has pointed out, “For any administration to be good and efficient, as a whole, a nation needs to place right type of men, at right places and on right time. The quality of men placed in position is more important than laying down of rules and methods of operation”.

The report of Inquiry on Public Service Personnel, appointed by Social Science Research Council of USA in 1935 says, “No element of career service is more important than the recruitment policy.” Any laxity in recruitment policy may spell disaster. No amount of training or coaching, pre or post, can convert the inherent weaknesses of recruitment policy into strength within a short period. Today’s faulty selection could create tomorrow’s organizational problem. It may jeopardize and push developmental & national reconstruction goals behind. It may leave cascading and damaging effect on the whole administrative set-up.

Therefore, Government should make all feasible arrangements to recruit, retain, train and retrain the best talents at every level, who can shoulder the heavy responsibilities of governance judiciously.

Data on Job requirements a must for recruitments at every level – Before working on recruitment policy, a thorough study needs to be done on job requirements, in context with present and future roles.  The candidates should be selected on the basis of their capabilities, attitudes, aptitude and adaptability to meet the position profile.  The focus should not be only on job skills, but on attitude and behaviour as well.

Issues in context with India – People often wonder, why there is decline over the years in the quality, competence and commitment of the civil services? Why “the steel-frame of yester years’’ is shaking? Is it shaking under its own pressures? Why has it not been able to do its job effectively and judiciously? Delays, red-tape-ism, cost and time over-runs in project execution, lower productivity, rising prices, law and order situation etc. are the indications of showing it. Question arises, are civil services, shaking under its own pressures? Witnessing deteriorating standard of governance and incapacity to deliver desired results, people lost faith in civil services.

It would, perhaps, be difficult to find out solutions, in isolation, in the context of civil services, as its recruitment and pre-entry education and post-entry training system are wedded together, each influencing the other heavily.

Role of Education and Training – Effectiveness education and training largely depends on right diagnosis of national needs and objectives. All the three partners – Educationists/trainers, employers, and public/trainees concerned with pre-entry education, recruitment and post entry training are required to interact out of knowledge and understanding. Evaluation, from time to time, becomes necessary for making necessary reforms in education, recruitment and training programs. It cannot be done overnight. Such a task calls for patience, objectivity, enough time, and government support.

Aim of Pre-entry education and training – Aim of pre-entry education (before joining job-market) and training is to provide firm foundation for further learning.   In its wider sense, it embraces reading, observation and thought. It develops mental and moral faculties, which have a material bearing on the formation of character. It needs to be comprehensive in scope and sound in nature. 

Education does not mean learning theoretical or academic pursuit of knowledge for a fixed period, leading to award of degrees. It is a continuous process for complete upbringing of the individual right from his birth to death.  Within its jurisdiction, it embraces the formation of habits, manners and character. 

Aim of post-entry education and training – As systems grow more complex, and knowledge advances, need for post-entry training increases. There have been continuous changes in the strategy, structure and management techniques. Nature and the degree of training needs to be job oriented.

Qualifications and knowledge needed for different spheres of work in government differ from each other. Officers working in different departments need to have update knowledge of subject-content and systems of their particular area, otherwise the work suffers.

Foundation and on-job training prepares new recruits with understanding of political, social and economic infrastructure of the country as well as familiarizes them with systems and atmosphere, in which they have to work. It prepares them for certain lines of action, which are delineated by technology and by the organization, in which he works.

Both foundation and on-job education and training, not only enables candidates to perform their current job efficiently, but also equips them for other duties and appropriately develop their capacity for higher work with more responsibility. It –

• Develops team spirit,
• Prepare the candidates for Interaction at individual-to-individual level, Interaction with boss and Interaction at group level – with groups, which may include his superiors, peers, or subordinates. 

Age of specialization – Twenty first century is an age of specialization. Gone are the days when the Jacksonian Theory, which states “The duties of all public officers are made so plain and simple that men of intelligence may readily qualify for their performance”. In recent past, knowledge has grown much faster than human ability to handle it.  As knowledge advances, need for specialization increases.  Progress and specialization seem to go together.

There are very few tasks, which can be performed adequately without some measure of specialization, through education, training or experience. There have been continuous changes in the strategy, structure and management techniques. Nature and the degree of specialization have to be geared, through education, training or experience, to the needs that have to be met. Qualities and knowledge needed for different areas of work in government differ from each other to a great extent. Officers working in different departments have to update their knowledge and qualities continuously. Good governance of a democratic country needs in its government servants, not only quality of minds, but also the subject-matter contents in their minds.

Selection of personnel at different levels should not be done only on the basis of memory power, but the focus should be on knowledge, capabilities, attitudes, aptitude, behaviour and adaptability to meet the position profile as well.

Role of Recruitment policy – The report of Inquiry on Public Service Personnel, appointed by Social Science Research Council of USA in 1935 says, “No element of career service is more important than the recruitment policy.”

On recruitment policy depends on the nature and usefulness of administrative machinery. Nothing damages administration more than faulty recruitment. Any laxity in initial recruitment jeopardizes the objective and pushes the developmental goals behind. It may inflict a permanent, cascading and damaging effect on the whole system. No amount of training or coaching, pre or post, can convert the inherent weaknesses into strength within a short period. Today’s faulty selection could create tomorrow’s organizational problem. Before working on recruitment policy, a thorough study needs to be done on present and future job requirements. 

‘Merit concept’ for recruitment in career services – Recruitment in government services needs to be done on basis of merit at all levels. French has no faith in the cult of amateur in Government. They are not interested in a man having a good mind but in having a mind trained in the subject, with which his job has to deal. Americans have marked tendency towards specialization. American recruitment system has a tendency to minimize educational achievement as an essential qualification for advancement and to select individual already trained into more or less rigidly specified pigeonholes.

Merit concept’ for recruitment in career services – The need for a sound recruitment policy was first realized by China, centuries ago, which started the adoption of merit principle based on competitive examination.  Prussia was the first country, in modern times, to evolve a sound recruitment system.  Later on, the principle of merit was adopted by India in 1853, Britain in 1857 and U.S.A. in 1883 (through Civil Service Act of 1883).  Now almost all the nations accept that a good selection can provide right type of officials, who could implement plans, policies and programs of government in a systematic and purposeful manner.

II. Background of recruitment and education and training system of civil services in India

Education and training system and policy of recruitment in civil services in India has progressed slowly but steadily under three regimes – –

1. (i) System of recruitment and training under East India Company – Under East India Company’s rule, the role of its employees changed from merchants to statesman, from traders to Governors, Judges & Magistrates. Selection in civil services started with Spoil/Patronage system (1805-1855).

Individual Directors of the East India Company mostly nominated sons of Aristocratic families in UK for Indian Civil and Military Services, having acquaintance with the affairs and people of India.

In 1786, Lord Cornwallis had drawn the attention of the Directors of the Company towards the necessity of creating proper system of the selection and training of its officials. Lord Wellesley (1798-1805) had opened a college to train and develop personality and administrative capacity of its civil servants, at Fort Williams on 24^th April 1800, without waiting for formal sanction of the Directors. It trained the young recruits to the civil services in Indian Affairs, systems of government, social conditions, languages and prevalent traditions.

On 12^th May 1805, Directors of the Company had established “East Indian College” at Haileybury in England to train Covenanted (higher) Civil Servants, India. This college was given a statutory status by a charter in 1813 and was maintained by a Board of Control.

According to Charter of 1813, the candidates were appointed only after attending four terms at Haileybury College and getting a certificate from its principal that their conducts were satisfactory. However, it was not found satisfactory. In 1855, Spoil/Nomination system was abolished by the British Parliament. In June 1858, Halsbury College was closed.

2 (ii) System of recruitment and training under ‘Crown’ – In 1958, East India Company had transferred the power to the Crown. It was under the Crown’s rule, that system of competitive examinations was started to select suitable candidates for civil services.

Queen Victoria’s Proclamation (1858) stated, “It is our further will that so far as may be, our subjects of whatever race or creed, be freely impartially admitted to the offices in our service, the duties of which they may be qualified by their education, ability and integrity, duly to discharge” [v].

 In Feb 1854, Northcote and Trevelyan’s report recommended a system of examination ahead of entry and promotion on merit through open competition. Same year in November, Macauley Report recommended for an open competitive examination, to be conducted by an independent body. It suggested to ensure calibre of direct recruits by their success in an open competition.

It was the opinion of rulers that, ““If a succession of men of great talent and virtues cannot be found, or if the operation of any influence or party feelings and principles prevents their being chosen, we (the British) must reconcile ourselves to the serious hazards of the early decline, if not the loss of the great power, we have founded in the east.” [iv]

Creation of British Civil Service Commission – In order to make the civil services in India efficient and well equipped, the British Civil Service Commission was created in 1855. From 1858 onwards, the British Civil Service Commission selected suitable candidates for civil services every year through competitive examinations. Increasing demand of Indians for greater Indian participation in administration, forced the British rulers to include India simultaneously with that of England, as one of the competitive examinations’ centres for civil services from 1922 onwards.

Intensification of the nationalist movement also led the British rulers to abolish many “All India Services” (total 9 existing at that time), especially those dealing with service functions. Only ICS and IP, engaged in control functions, were allowed to continue. With it, they delegated the authority to Provincial governments to recruit personnel for their respective Provincial civil services and organize the functioning of those activities.

Till 1926, recruitment for higher civil services was conducted by British Civil Service Commission. In 1926, a Public Service Commission was constituted for India, which conducted ICS examination on behalf of British Civil Service Commission. This position continued till 1937, when the Public Service Commission (India) was replaced by Federal Service Commission under Government of India Act 1935.  From 1937 onwards, selection was done by Public Service Commission in India on behalf of British Civil Service Commission, thereafter, by Federal Service Commission under the Government of India Act.1935. After 1943, recruitment to ICS, were suspended.

Restrictions on Indians to join higher services – In spite of official declarations of 1833, 1858, 1861, 1892 and 1909, rulers were not at all prepared to share administrative powers with Indians. Selection in civil services was done by the dictum of “White man’s superiority”. British deliberately kept Indians at bay. To do so, the competitive examination was held only in England up to 1922. It was difficult for Indians to bear the hazards and expenses of going abroad for examination, especially when there were extremely remote chances of succeeding in that examination.

Lord Lytton, in his confidential document had said, “We all know that these claims, expectations never can or will be fulfilled. We have had choose between prohibiting them (Indians) and cheating them, we have chosen the least straight forward course.” [vi]

Lord Kimberley, the Secretary of State, wrote in 1893, “it is indispensable that an adequate number of members of the civil services shall always be Europeans”. Viceroy Lord Lansdown stressed “The absolute necessity of keeping the government of this wide spread empire into European hands, if the empire is to be maintained.”[i] Lord Curzon, justified this policy, “The highest ranks of the civil employees in India, those in the Imperial Civil Service, the members of which are entrusted with the responsible task of carrying on the general administration of the country, though open to such Indians, who proceed to England and pass the requisite tests, must nevertheless, as a general rule be held by the Englishmen, for the reason that they possess partly by heredity, partly by upbringing and partly by education that knowledge of the principles of Government, the habits of the mind and vigor of character, which are essential for the task and the rule of India, being a British rule  and any other rule being  in the circumstances of the case impossible.  The tone and the standard should be set by those, who have created it and are responsible for it.” [vii]

Post 1919 period witnessed the intensification of national movements. It had a dampening effect on the attraction of British youth for to join career service in India.  All the attempts to attract them felt that and the number of British Officers began to decline.

Basic ingredients of the system of Recruitment of civil servants during 1858 to 1919 – During Imperial rule, recruiting and controlling authority of civil services in India was ‘Secretary of State’. Rulers were very particular about intake-material into its administrative set-up at different levels – national, provincial or district level. The basic ingredients of recruitment system were:

• The selection was done via an open competition on the basis of merit. The caliber of direct recruits was ensured by their success in an open competition.
• Preference was given to middle class youth educated in public schools or having degrees from reputed educational institution like Oxford or Cambridge.

Intensive training program to shape new recruits during British era – British firmly believed that if the recruitment is properly done, candidates have the capacity to become a good bureaucrat. And what constitutes a good bureaucrat, is something, they learn by experience, for lots of things never get into books”.

 In order to maintain the standard, dignity and honor of the services, intensive training, formal or informal for two years, new selected candidates were given either formal training or on-the job training for two years. They were treated as probationers. Since the functions of maintaining law and order situation intact and revenue collection were vital for British Government, they paid special attention to the training of ICS officers.

Foundation Training program for ICS officers – Foundation training for ICS officers selected from UK centre was for two years. In order to strengthen the general education, trainee officers were taught law, history (idea of the background of Indian political history and cultural evolution, the foundation and development of British Administration and the economic history of the country) and the language of the state to which the officers were allotted. From 1937, it was reduced from two to one year.

Longer period for candidates selected from India center – Three years of rigorous foundational training was arranged for the civil servants selected from the Indian center (Delhi) after 1922. They were required to undergo one more year’s training in one of the four universities of UK- Oxford, Cambridge, London or Dublin. The purpose of longer probation period for Indians in Britain, was to bring Indian recruits in close touch with British way of life, give them an opportunity to broaden their outlook by being attached to a British University and to maintain uniformity, standard, dignity and honor of the services.

Probationary period – Probationary period was considered necessary for all government servants for picking the threads and be shaped to their specific roles. During this they were watched carefully by senior officers during their probation period. The purpose of a probationary period was to allow a specific time period for the employee and employer to assess suitability of the role after having first-hand experience. On the other hand, it gave the new employee the opportunity to see whether they liked their new job and surroundings.

Paternalistic outlook of officers – It was made very clear to senior district officers, “the great importance of paying attention to the training of young men, who were entrusted to their guidance and whose success in life and influence for good depend so greatly on the assistance, which they received at the outset of their career”. Senior officers thought it their duty and took it as a challenge to provide, “Care, protection and guidance” to junior officers. Mr. Arthur, another ex-ICS officer, said, “Their attitude, certainly was paternalistic, which was necessary in a colonial administration.”

The system was so enforced and watched that there was no escape whatever from acquiring some knowledge about the basics of administration, and to learn about problems of each and every area of their respective department’s conditions and to learn as to how best to deal with them.

Training in Districts – Immediately after their arrival in India, they reported to the administration of the province, to which they were assigned and in turn were attached to Districts for on-the-job training for 18 months. During one year of district training, officers were advised to get thoroughly acquainted with villages, administrative compulsions and a working knowledge of their areas, the relationship between various branches of Government at district headquarters like police, agriculture, local bodies etc. Another six months were directed to more intensive revenue work in district under land settlement. It meant harder and more complicated work.

The real intention of the rulers was to train in such a way that they “should ….. be Anglicized in terms of both cultural and intellectual attainments”. Lord Macauley clearly said that “we must at present do our best to form a class, who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern; a class of persons, Indians in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals and in intellect.” No doubt, the rigorous training system for them had broaden the outlook of Indian recruits, developed their sense of duty as administrators and loyalty to the Government.

The Indian officials had to appear in two examinations at end of their probation in U.K., while their British counterparts, selected from London centre appeared only in one examination.  In all other matters like emolument and privileges, the Indian ICS officials got equal treatment, as was given to their British counterpart.  

Basic ingredients of training new recruits in government services – During Imperial rule the recruiting and controlling authority of civil services in India was ‘Secretary of State’. British government provided suitable atmosphere conducive to effective learning for improving performance, while on-the job during probation period. During this period new appointees were supposed to be fully molded according to the aims and objectives Imperial government.

• G.O. No. 738, published on 18th April 1916, in ICS Manual, Madras, “The great importance of paying attention to the training of young men, who were entrusted to their guidance and whose success in life and influence for good depends so greatly on the assistance, which they received at the outset of their career.” Senior officers thought it their duty to provide, “Care, protection and guidance” to junior officers. Mr. Arthur, an ex-ICS officer, said, “Their attitude, certainly was paternalistic, which was necessary in a colonial administration.”
• Great stress was laid on actual field work, touring and camping out for at least a period of five to seven years, during which officials were supposed to be fully molded to suit the needs of the organization, they were serving.
• – “The smallness of service”, just over a thousand at any given time instilled amongst officers a strong sense of service loyalty.
• – Government maintained “The smallness of service”, just over a thousand at any given time which instilled amongst officers a strong sense of service loyalty.
• Philip Maser acknowledged that there was esprit d’ corps amongst the officers. It was not articulated artificially.  Everybody knew it. Lines pointed out, “It is the Esprit d’ corps, which served to enforce a strong moral code.”  
• Clive Dewey said that the historical evidence points out to only a minute handful of officers of being corrupt. “It was partially their salaries, partly their background, partly their sense of duty and partly ivory tower, in which they lived.
• – The bureaucracy, whatever its complexion might have been, had developed traditions of independence, integrity, and hard work,
• G.O. No. 738, published on 18th April 1916, in ICS Manual, Madras, “The great importance of paying attention to the training of young men, who were entrusted to their guidance and whose success in life and influence for good depends so greatly on the assistance, which they received at the outset of their career.”
• -They Great stress was laid on touring and camping out.

However, these qualities served the British rulers and not the Indian masses.

Reputation of Civil services British Crown Rule – During 1858 to 1919, civil services in India were known as the “Steel Frame” of its administrative structure, which reared and sustained British rule in India. Gradually it had developed into one of the most efficient/powerful services in the world. Nobody had ever doubted about the efficiency and effective governance during British Rule.

Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister in his historic “Steel-frame” speech, said that British civil servants were the very basis of the Empire in India “I do not care, what you build on it. If you take that Steel-frame out of the fabric, it will collapse.  There is only one institution, we will not cripple, there is one institution, and we will not deprive of its functions or of its privileges and that is that institution, which build up the British Raj – the British Civil Service in India.” (Aug.2, 1922 in the House of Commons).

Nobody had ever doubted about the efficiency and effective governance during British Rule. It had even puzzled many bigwigs like Stalin, Von Ribbentrop and many foreigner observers as to how was the Indian Empire administered with such apparent zeal, efficiency, high-mindedness and impartiality. And how barely a thousand British ICS (Indian Civil Service) personnel ruled both British India and the princely states with a combined population of well over 300 million during the first part of the twentieth century. 

3.i Civil services after Independence

India at the time of Independence in 1945 – After Second World War, world-over, developing and less-developed countries were passing through a state of transition. They faced many hurdles to bring about much-required political, social and economic changes. Concept of welfare state became popular in developing nations of Asia and Africa, which aimed to provide better way of life, better housing, better education, & better medical care to general public. Recent disturbances like civil war in Nigeria, troubles in Kenya, Congo’s civil war and disturbances in Vietnam are result of the aspiration of people to move forward quickly. India is no exception to it.

The nation was facing many critical problems at the dawn of Independence. The deteriorated condition of law and order caused by partition of the country in 1947, unification of the country out of widely distributed conglomeration of provinces/Princely states and politicians’ lack of experience in administration were posing problems. In addition, migration of civil servants to Britain and Pakistan and bleeding economy of the country made it imperative not to disturb the then existing system. It was posing severe problems. Concerted efforts of people’ representatives, administrators, scientists, technocrats and professionals were needed to establish a new politico-economic and social order and meet the challenges. Nobody could remain passive spectator to it.

Constitution-framers’ views on formation of civil services – Forefathers of the Indian Constitution understood well the importance of civil services in order to ensure good governance. On Nov.26, 1949, the President of the Constituent Assembly, Rajendra Prasad (the first President of Independent India) had said, while moving for the adoption of the constitution in 1949, “Whatever the Constitution may or may not provide, the welfare of the country will depend upon the men who administer it.” …If the governance of the country is in the hands of people, “who are capable and men of character and integrity, they will be able to make the best even of a defective Constitution…If they are lacking in these the Constitution cannot help the country. After all Constitution, like a machine is a lifeless thing. It acquires life because of the men who control and operate it. And India needs today nothing more than a set of honest men who will have the interest of the country before them”.

Mr. MV Kamath said, “With the independence of our country, the responsibilities of the (civil) services have become onerous. It may make or mar the efficiency of the machinery of administration, machinery so vital for the peace and progress of the country. A country without any efficient Government service cannot make progress in spite of the earnestness of the people at the helm of affairs of the country. Whatever democratic institutions exist, experience has shown, that it is essential to protect public services as far as possible from political and personal influence and to give it that position of stability and security, which is vital in its successful working, as an impartial and efficient instrument, by which Government of whatever political complexion may give effect to their policies” (Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. IX, p585).

Shri C. Rajagopalachari suggested, “For any administration to be good and efficient, as a whole, we want right type of men. The quality of men placed in position is more important than laying down of rules and methods of operation.”

India not ready for any drastic changes at the dawn of Independence – There were some national leaders also who wished to reconstitute the bureaucracy, which worked under British rulers. Civil services of Independent India needed to be formed on a new basis to fit in with the concept of “welfare state” and “Development Administration”. Civil servants, “… must not only be good administrators, but should be imbibed with the service, possess leadership of a high order and be able to play the role of a guide and friend of the people.”  

Pt Nehru, the first Prime minister of India said very clearly, “But of one thing, I am quite sure that no new order can be built up in India, so long as the spirit of ICS pervades our administration and our public services. That spirit of authoritarianism is the ally of Imperialism. It cannot co-exist with freedom. It will either succeed in crushing freedom or will be swept away itself. Only with one type of state, it is likely to fit in and that is the fascist type. Therefore, it seems that ICS and the similar services must disappear completely, as such before we start real work on new order.”

But at that time, India was not ready for any drastic changes in administrative system. Visionary Sardar Patel, then the Home Minister of India, had realized that at the dawn of independence, circumstances were such that no drastic change was possible in the then existing administrative system. Many British officers took premature retirement. A large number of Muslim officers opted for Pakistan. Besides, the nation was facing other critical problems like cumbersome task of unification of states, partition of the country in 1947 and bleeding economic situations etc.

At that crucial moment, the civil services had not only saved the nation from catastrophe, but participated whole-hearted in nation building activities, whether it was land reforms, agricultural development, building irrigation projects, promoting industry or improving health and education systems.

It did not go without recognition or expression of praise.  Realizing the grimness of situation, visionary Sardar Patel, then the Home Minister of India, advised not only to welcome to the services of India, all those officers, who opted for India, but also to given to them a constitutional security. Consequently, without any drastic change in the then existing administrative system, the system of recruitment and education and training (pre& post) system passed on in post independent era.

Consequently, save minor changes here and there, the system of recruitment and education and training (pre& post) system remained the same –

Tasks of civil services after independence – After independence, in addition to traditional tasks (to maintain law and order, and collect revenue), civil services are responsible for sustainable development of new modern India, to do integrated planning, to co-ordinate and implement programs for economic and social regeneration and to construct infra-structure. Some of the duties of Civil servants are to –

• o improve quality of service – Being the government of welfare and developmental state, India needs officers in its executive, “Who must not only be good administrators, but should be imbibed with the service, possess leadership of a high order and be able to play the role of a guide and friend of the people.” [ix].
• Initiate actions to execute policies and translate plans into action. Running smoothly day-to-day administration at all levels, be it in the Secretariat or in the Fields at all levels, Local, State and Central,

Education, Recruitment and Training in post-independent India

Education system (pre-entry or post-entry) after Independence – Job-oriented education and training inculcates in youth the maximum possible degree of efficiency to the specific job allotted to them.

Building up of responsible and efficient civil servant does not start from the day, one joins the civil services, but right from the day he starts his education. Sound system of education and training is necessary for imparting knowledge, shaping attitudes, cultivating skills, building work-habits of the employees and making them capable of meeting the challenges of modern times. The pre-entry education and training needs to be formative/creative rather than informative, comprehensive in scope and sound in nature. Education and training system of the candidates before entering into job market should be comprehensive in scope and sound in nature, which can provide firm foundation for further learning.

Pre-entry education – Ever since the Independence, Governments in power have focused on quantitative expansion of literates rather than improving the quality of education as well. Formal pre-entry education is provided at three levels –

Post-entry education system – Implementation of government’s plans and policies and achievement of targeted goals within time and cost parameters depends, to a great extent, on Civil Services. More the challenges and problems to be tackled, more the pressure is on services, more is the need to educate and train civil servants adequately to challenge the challenges of modern world.

Independent India recognizes the importance of intensive post-entry education and training during foundation training and guidance by seniors during initial on-job period. Post-entry education ang training can be divided into following categories, each for different purposes –

Recruitment in civil services – It is one of the prime functions of the Government to make all the feasible arrangements to recruit, retain, train and retrain the best talent of the nation for its administrative work at every level, so that they can shoulder the heavy responsibilities of governance judiciously.  Sri C Rajagopalachari has commented, “The quality of men placed in position is more important than laying down of rules and methods of operation” … “For any administration to be good and efficient, as a whole, we want right type of men”.  More the challenges and problems to be tackled, the more pressure there on the civil services or bureaucracy, which is responsible for implementation of plans and policies of the government.

It was Thomas Babington Macaulay, who in the year 1854, shaped the recruitment policy. The basic features to recruit, retain and train civil servants have remained almost the same even after Independence. However, the Constitution of India has entrusted the responsibility to select responsible and deserving candidates for administrative framework to Public Service Commission.

Creation of Public Service Commission – Constitution-framers have entrusted to an independent/autonomous body, known as Union Public Service Commission, the responsibility to select right personnel for different levels of administrative set-up under Government of India.  The same task is performed in different provinces by respective State Public Service Commissions for its Provincial Civil Services. These Public-Service-Commissions make all the feasible arrangements to select those candidates, who can shoulder the responsibilities of governance judiciously. Selection of appointees annually through open competitive examination.

After Independence, Public Service Commissions conduct open competitive examinations annually for initial recruitment at various levels. Its task is to select energetic personnel with drive, initiative, integrity and positive outlook for different administrative/managerial, technical or non-technical government services. of administration. Public Service Commissions conduct annually competitive written examinations, followed by personality test.

Public Service Commission conducts annually open competitive examinations to assess the capability of the aspirant candidates for different technical or non-technical government services. Selected candidates placed in different departments   to implement the policies and programs of the government in a more positive, systematic and purposeful manner.

The process of examination roughly takes one year from the notification of the pre-examination to declaration of the final results. Nation-wide competitive Civil Services Examination (CSE) in India, conducted by UPSC, is one of the toughest examinations in India, with more than 900,000 applicants having one of the lowest in the world success rate of 0.1%­0.3%.

Main attractions for youth to join Civil Services has been generous salaries, opportunity to do something worthwhile, quick promotions, and responsibilities with freedom to work. Qualifications needed for entering into Competitive examination of CSE services are –

Educational qualification – A graduate degree (from a recognized university incorporated by an Act of Central or State Legislature in India or other educational institution established by Parliament Act announced to be deemed university under section-3 of the UGCA, 1956 or have an equivalent degree). It does not require any professional qualification or experience.

Age-limit – Candidates must be a minimum of 21 years of age and must not be more than 32 years. Upper age limit, after independence in 1947, was 24 years. In early 70’s, it was raised to 26. On Kothari Commission recommendations, it was again raised to 26 or 28 years after 1979 by the government. At present it is 32 years for general candidates. For SC/ST candidates, upper age limit is relaxed maximum up to 5 years i.e., 37 years, and for OBCs 3years i.e., 35 years. Apart from the mentioned limits, as special cases (OBC+ Ex-servicemen), they get further extension of 3 years (5+3 = 8 years) i.e., upper age limit now stands at 40.

Special benefits to weaker sections – National leaders feel that there is a need to widen the recruitment base for running the administrative work smoothly, as youth from varied background would carry with them diverse experiences. Wider the spread of recruitment net, the larger would be the talent base and richer would be the service. Weaker sections candidates would appreciate better the ground realties of backward areas. Therefore, legislators have given special facilities to the weaker sections through Reservation policy.

Government has fixed for them in all government services, not on the basis of economic criteria but on the basis of caste (15% for SCs, 7&1/2% for STs and 27% for OBCs). Also, when a General Category candidate gets only 6 attempts, there is no bar on attempts for SCs/STs candidates. OBCs get 9 attempts. 

Selected candidates are sent to various training institutions for foundational or to their respective departments for on-the job to understand the functioning of their departments.

The process of examination roughly takes one year from the notification of the pre-examination to declaration of the final results. Nation-wide competitive Civil Services Examination (CSE) in India, conducted by UPSC, is one of the most popular and toughest examinations in India.

The attractions for a youth to join Government service are its generous salary-structure, fixed promotions, opportunity to be an important part of power echelon and other privileges, government gives to its employees like pension, medical benefit etc. It attracts talents from all-over India. More than 900,000 applicants apply every year. It has one of the lowest, (0.1%­0.3%) success rate of in the world.

Training during probation period prepares new recruits to implement the policies and programs of the government in a more positive, systematic and purposeful manner.

Creation of Training Division in In Home Ministry – Realising the importance of for new recruits to nurture them to acquire necessary skills, in 1968, a bold step, in this direction, was taken by the Government, by creating a cell, the ‘Training Division’ in the Ministry of Home Affairs. Its job is to coordinate and stimulate foundation, on-job, in-service training and to arrange refresher courses in various training institutions.

These Training Institutions can be grouped in three categories – (1) Institutes run by the Government of India, (2) Institutes run by the State Governments, (3) Autonomous/Private Institutes. These institutions impart foundation as well as in-service training through plan and non-plan programmes to senior officers of different departments at various stages and in various disciplines. Training in those areas, where adequate facilities are not available within the country, is given abroad under bilateral agreements and aid-programmes.

Criticism of present system of education (pre/post), and training system – The reputation of government services has gradually declined. Indifference and corruption had crept in. It has lost its ethos and commitment and integrity. About 25% of government servants are callous, corrupt, 50% officials are self-serving and are indifferent. Remaining 25% do all government work.

It is the opinion of intelligentsia that it is due to some weaknesses in present education, recruitment and further in-service training systems. Conventional system of selection has not been able to introduce in its civil services much-needed dynamism vision, integrity, imagination, and humanism in administration. It lacks old-time qualities like giving free and frank opinion, integrity, fearlessness and independence of thought.

A number of opinion polls and interviews (of different levels of officers, educators and trainers, and aspirants to join civil services) on present recruitment and further education and training system says that so far successive governments have paid considerable attention to the Education and recruitment training systems, but it has not been able to bring out the desired results so far.

Weaknesses of present education system –Many eminent persons, commissions and committees have pointed out that all is not well in present education, training and recruitment system. It suffers from following grave weaknesses –

• – Higher education in India is increasingly becoming unrelated to national needs and aspirations, in-efficient, wasteful and dysfunctional.
• – During British period, education was spread very thin, but it maintained some standard.  Independent India has not been able to maintain the standards of the past in on order to make quantitative expansion of education. Present education system lays emphasis on giving the student ready-made knowledge, systematically and neatly organized in the form of lessons, units and textbook, which makes mind a storehouse of knowledge, and discourages creative thinking. Quality of education hardly makes majority of students either intellectually competent or motivated to do constructive work in responsible manner. Focus on quantitative increase has led to continuous fall in the quality of higher education.
• – General higher education system, is unrelated to national needs and aspirations, in-efficient, wasteful and dysfunctional. It leaves gaps between learning and practical requirement. Without assessing future needs of the nation, Government has created many universities, professional and technical institutions. It has resulted in over-crowding the institutions of education and training. Over-crowding in institutions of higher learning has led to decline in the academic standards. Numbers of unemployed, educated unemployed or underemployed youth are increasing alarmingly. And with it, has grown, indiscipline, unrest, agitation and violence among student community. It has politicized the temples of learning.
• creative thinking – By making mind a storehouse of knowledge, it discourages creative thinking. Higher Secondary education is the weakest link of present-day education system. It has been unable to tone up the mental faculties of teenagers, to broaden up the minds of teenagers or improve their power of reasoning, analyzing and appreciation of the problems or situations and find out their solutions. It is unable to articulate their half-baked inchoate feelings and impressions, make them more mature, or develop their personality in full.     
• Admission in all institutes of higher studies – In all government schools and colleges, seats are reserved for different sections of society on caste basis. Quota has been fixed – 15% for SCs, 7.5% for STs and 27% for OBCs.

Building up of responsible and efficient civil servant does not start from the day, he joins the civil services, but right from the day he starts his education. The pre-entry education and training should be comprehensive in scope and sound in nature, so that it could lay firm foundation for the making of efficient and effective civil servants for the good governance of the nation.

Something more is needed to be done to improve system of education and training system and along with in recruitment system as well, which is closely inter-linked with it.

Grave weaknesses of Recruitment system – Nothing damages the administration more than faulty recruitment. Selecting wrong persons for administrative work may inflict a permanent, cascading and damaging effect on the whole system. It could frustrate the effort of national reconstruction. At present, some of the weaknesses of recruitment system are –

• Recruitment in civil services is degree-oriented instead of job-oriented. It requires massive efforts to arm the civil servants to fill gap between learning and practical requirements and to act efficiently and effectively and to.
• t is also academic and favours the examination minded candidates. The examination and evaluation system tests only a narrow range of skills. Just assessment of different subjects poses difficult problems in evaluation of comparative merits. Assessment of different subjects poses difficult problems in evaluating comparative merits. It favours examination-minded people at the cost of those, who have ‘drive’ and ‘vision’ and capacity to execute but can’t secure good marks.
• – Less than 50% seats in civil services are filled on merit basis. Other 50% seats at centre and more than 50% in provinces are filled on the basis of fixed quotas for different sections of society on caste basis.
• A system, which promotes mediocrity and risk-aversion, can’t lead to efficient and effective governance. Civil services suffer a lot because of no regards for merit, while recruiting officials. There is disincentive for hard work, talent, honesty and sincerity. protectionist and populist policies of the government to create vote-banks; and lack of will-power of political leadership to take hard decisions. Lack of accountability, playing safe attitude of government servants delays in taking decisions and actions alienation and tolerance of people are other factors responsible for it. People have become so helpless that they accept the sub-standard administration, giving very little challenge to the authorities to upgrade their performance.
• – There is no pressure on officers to perform and deliver results. In a system, where hardworking, smart and capable officers are not awarded and lazy, corrupt and incompetent don’t get weeded out, there is no motivation to personnel for upgrading their knowledge and skills. A large number of officials with weak moral fabric succumb to the political pressures in the hope to get good postings or transfers. Power-hungry bureaucrats pay more attention to the dictates of their political masters.
• System of post-entry system is not perfect. Those officers, who have flair to train the young ones are not sent to training institutes. Government prefers to send unwanted officials as trainers to training institutes. Also, senior officers’ play safe attitude prevents them to guide and pay attention to new-comers way of working.
• While performing administrative, welfare and developmental tasks, a few power-hungry bureaucrats acquire tremendous power, that too without responsibility or upgrading their knowledge/performance. And as Anne Bradstreet says, “Authority without wisdom is like a heavy axe without an edge.”
• Less than 50% seats in civil services are filled on merit basis. For other 50% seats quotas have been fixed, not on economic criteria, but on caste basis 15% for SCs, 7 &1/2% for STs and 27% for OBCs. Protectionist and populist policies of government work as disincentive to hard work, talent, honesty. Quota system has started a rat-race for political power among newly emerged dominant castes and communities. On the basis of numerical strength, they pressurize government to be included in beneficiary list for getting more reservation benefits. “Lowest of the lowest strata” are out of the purview of Reservation, as majority of them are still illiterate or semi-literate.  Majority of “lowest of the lowest strata” remain out of the purview of Reservation Policy, as majority of them are semi-literate, hardly going for higher secondary education.
• Quota system has worked as disincentive for talented youth of general category. Constant political interference has diluted the charm of talented youth to join civil services. Increasing political pressures have made atmosphere suffocating, while working in government. There is not much scope to do creative work there. It has led to brain drain. A large number of scientists, doctors, engineers and technicians go abroad in search of suitable atmosphere to work. The cream of the society either wishes to join the private sector or to go to greener pastures abroad. Liberalization and globalization have given a boost to this trend.
• – Increasing of the upper age limit from time to time for entering in competitive examinations (at present up to the age 33for general category/36 for OBCs/38 for SCs &STs) does not seem to be rational or appropriate. Over the years, governments have ignored many panels’ recommendations to lower the upper age limit. But now the topic is now back in focus. Recently NITI Aayog has recommended lowering the age limit for general category civil service aspirants to 27 from the current 32.

Along with education and training system, some reforms are needed in recruitment system as well to induct officials of calibre, character and leadership capabilities into Government services.

Reasons for slow development – Deteriorated condition of law and order-situation, quality, work-culture, integrity and ethos of civil services are continuously on decline.  and groupism in civil services, especially after 1990s, have increased. Disregard for merit, bloated size of the civil services, feeling of insecurity amongst upright officers, their play-safe-attitude, and changes in value system all-over have harmed the overall performance and integrity of the services.

Some of the reasons for such a condition is unsuitable system of recruitment and foundation training, no regards for meritocracy or expertise, protectionist and populist policies, disincentive to hard work, talent, honesty and sincerity, lack of accountability. It urgently calls for some reforms in education and recruitment systems.to guide youth towards the path of discipline, order and harmony, freedom, self-control, character, happiness and contentment.

Age Relaxation – Before Independence, British rulers put emphasis on selecting young students between the age-group of 21 to 24 years. This is the age, when human mind remains most creative, flexible, energetic. Teenagers are free from all social tensions, familial responsibilities and obligations.  Raising upper age limit up to 32 and 38 is not rational. Thirty onwards, a person has to bear maximum, load of familial responsibilities.

Insufficient Training time for initial training of new recruits – Initial selection in civil services around the age of thirty does not leave sufficient time for intensive foundation or on-the-job training. Besides, as one grows older, attitudes harden. It is difficult to inculcate in grownups new knowledge, new skills, new attitudes, new spirit or develop essential qualities to perform complex and delicate job of welfare and development administration, like commitment, sincerity, integrity etc., essential or change their attitude etc.

More time is required inculcate in new recruit intellectual knowledge, emotional qualities and capacities required for performing their specific jobs well and enable them to possess qualities like social purposefulness, ability to understand socio-economic, political and problems and its implications, resourcefulness of solving them, capacity for teamwork and flair for leadership.

Hope belied – Thanks to rapid growth in education, economic and other concessions, liberal grant of scholarship and stipends, improvement in the social standard and cultural values of rural people. As was hoped, recruitment base has already widened now. Candidates from diverse background are joining civil services. Submerged sections (weaker sections) of society have made their place in power echelon Submerged sections (weaker sections) of society have made their place in power echelons.

Moral degradation of people in general has affected adversely, equation between employer and employees and equation between politicians, civil servants & business community.  Intolerance for each-others has spoiled the general atmosphere prevailing all-over the world. Broken social fabric, pervasive corruption and indiscipline has weakened almost all the systems beyond repairs. Population is exploding virtually unchecked. There are sectoral and regional imbalances which are sources of political, economic, social and psychological turmoil. It is making a virtue of narrow loyalties of religion, race, or caste. Sub-cultures like favoritism, nepotism, and corruption are fast becoming accepted way of life. The persons or groups, who have power in their hands, control almost every walk of national life. They are working continuously to deny justice to common man. 

The reflection of all these evils is found everywhere including government services. Civil services are less disciplined and less united today as it was earlier. There has been a fall in officer like qualities. While moving ahead towards modernization and industrialization, old zeal and stamina for strenuous work value-system of services are missing. Seeing continuous deterioration in law & order situation all over India, insufficient infrastructural development, fall in overall quality, work-culture ethos, moral values of government services, delays in taking decisions and actions, play-safe-attitude of government servants, cumbersome office procedures, increased paperwork, poor personnel policies etc., public is losing faith in government services.

Since long, some much-needed reforms have not been made in education (pre or post), recruitment and training system have not been made. Focus of political leadership remains on quota system to create vote-banks. It has led to concentration of authority in a few hands. Lack of will-power to take hard decisions and alienation and tolerance of people, who accept the sub-standard administration, giving very little challenge to the authorities to make necessary reforms upgrade the performance have added fuel into fire.

Criticism about increasing age limit – Some opinion polls and interviews of different levels of officers on present recruitment and training system, educators and trainers, point out that though successive governments have paid considerable attention to the issue of recruitment, and further education and Training of civil servants, it has not been able to bring out the desired results so far.

Since 2001, several committees, like Y.K.Alagh Committee in 2001, P.C.Hota committee in 2004, 10^th report of the Second Administrative Commission 2008, and NITI Aayog has also recommended lowering the age limit for entering into civil services.

Hota Committee commented, “It may be futile to expect a person in his thirties, already married and well into domestically and coming with an accumulated mental baggage, to learn the basic of ethical behaviour during foundational source training in Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy of administration at Mussoorie”.

Recently the topic is again back in focus. A group of intellectuals feels that idea of reduction in the age limit for both general category and SC/ST aspirants would be a “wonderful and much-needed” reform.

Over the years, national leaders of different parties and government in power have hesitated to take any hard decision. There is a lack of political will to take such a step as it is a politically touchy subject. They know that they will have to pay political price for it.

C Rajagopalachari has rightly pointed out, “Short sighted favoritisms and concessions, to produce contentment among classes and castes, will be short lived and will deteriorate into a constant pondering to intrigues and factions, if we do not look to real efficiency.”

Seeing the inherent weaknesses in Indian education system and recruitment system, it becomes clear that necessity to recruit, retain, train and retrain the best talents of the nation calls for some reforms in both educational system and recruitment system calls for reforms. Effectiveness education and training largely depends on right diagnosis of national needs and objectives. Such a task calls for patience, objectivity, enough time, and management support. Education and training system of the candidates before entering into job market should be comprehensive in scope and sound in nature, which can provide firm foundation for further learning.

More than earlier India needs India needs efficient and effective civil services – At present, India needs more than earlier, to select energetic officers with drive, initiative, unquestionable integrity and positive outlook for smooth, efficient and effective governance, especially in its managerial cadres. Because –

• Due to exclusive and specialized nature of work, governance of the country needs for more expert knowledge in all the areas of governance for improving the quality of service.

Catch them young and then mold them into required frame – Seeing the inherent weaknesses in Indian education system and recruitment system, it would be better if selection to various government services is made immediately after higher secondary education at a raw age, when the minds of aspirants are still energetic, creative and are in a formative stage. Best time for recruitment in various Government Services is around 18-24. Many studies say that around this age-group human brains’ processing power and detail memory peaks up and lasts for 5 more years. Afterwards it is a downhill pattern.

Role models, Defense and Engineering Service and medical services – The idea of cadet system – catching them young and giving them enough time to improve skills and qualifications, abilities like teamwork, resilience, and foster confidence, loyalty and a sense of service to others – is not new to India. It has been proved to be successful in Defense Services, engineering and medical services.

So, it is better to “Catch them young” instead of letting them to join civil services after getting graduation degree. A group of intelligentsias think that Right time to cadre of officials for government services is between the age of 20 to 24. This is the age when human minds are in most creative, energetic and formative stage. Also, they are usually free from all kinds of social tensions, familial responsibilities and obligations. Usually, they are free from all social tensions, familial responsibilities and obligations. It is good time for trainees to learn and develop mental and physical capacities for their future roles, and for trainers to develop personality of trainees in full and instill in them essential qualities needed for good governance.

And then give them job-oriented education and training according to requirement of their respective jobs. This is the age, when their minds are in most creative, energetic and formative stage. Usually, they are free from all social tensions, familial responsibilities and obligations. This is the best time promote through their social, ethical, emotional, physical and cognitive competencies through and develop their personality in full .

It will be easier for the Government also to take a purposeful approach to articulate in trainees required thinking, attitude and knowledge. Initial training of new-comers should be should be intensive and be imparted so strictly that trainees come up to desired standard. It should done under strict supervision of seniors. Whosoever is unable to cope with the rigors of the training, should be asked to quit. By the time they are pass out, they should be well equipped with basic requirements of their respective jobs.

Right type of initial/foundation need-based/well-organised training programmes – To improve quality of work, training of new recruits in services should not be correctional in nature, otherwise effectiveness and efficiency in work receives a set-back and a much more massive effort for training would be required. Evaluation from time to time becomes necessary for making successive education and training programs more effective.

Well-organized rigorous training programs should be designed in newly recruited civil servants to imbibe new knowledge, new skills, new attitudes and new spirit. Education, pre or post, and straining should enable young officers to take timely decisions, to be devoted to duty, and adopt to changing circumstances. It imbibes intellectual knowledge, qualities, attitudes and skills according to the increasing and diversified needs of development administration of a Welfare state. It develops ability to understand and solve administrative, political and economic problems.

It should instill in them creativeness, dynamism, up-to-date knowledge in their particular discipline, capacity for teamwork, good fellowship, ability to cooperate, alertness in grasping a situation and quickness in assimilating relevant facts.

Selection of trainees and trainers/educators needs to be done with great care. Selection of trainees and trainers/educators needs to be done with great care. Education and Training can be more effective, when minds of trainees are in formative stage.

How to do it – To arm the civil servants at different levels to work effectively and to fill the gap between learning and practical requirements, a sound system of education and training is needed. Effectiveness education and training largely depends on right diagnosis of national needs and objectives. Such a task calls for patience, objectivity, enough time, and management support.

All the three partners – Employers (Government/private/public in sectors); educators/trainers in training Institutes; and employees should interact with each other out of knowledge and understanding. It cannot be done overnight and calls for patience, objectivity, enough time, and government support.

Pre-entry Education and training system should be comprehensive in scope and sound in nature, which can provide firm foundation for further learning. Selection of trainees and trainers/educators needs to be done with great care. Education and Training can be more effective, when minds of trainees are in formative stage.

To improve quality of work, post-entry training should not be correctional in nature, otherwise effectiveness and efficiency in work receives a set-back and a much more massive effort for training would be required. Evaluation from time to time becomes necessary for making successive education and training programs more effective.

Senior officers should pay attention and guide young officers, who work under them. The success in life of young officers depend greatly on the assistance, they receive from their seniors at the outset of their career. The guidance of senior officers helps new intrants to understand the practical problems, while on job and find out their solutions.

Evaluation from time to time becomes necessary for making successive education and training programs more effective to improve quality of work, Training should not be correctional in nature. Effectiveness and efficiency in work receives a set-back and demands a much more massive effort for training.

When other democratic institutions have lost public faith, the Defense Services commands a high esteem in public’s eye for having disciplined cadre of officers – dynamic, sincere, responsible and dedicated to their duties. After their selection, they get four years of rigorous training – three years in NDA at Kharakwasla, and for one year in IMA at Dehradun, Hyderabad in the case of Air Force and Cochin in the case of Navy.

Similar is the practice in the field of medicine and engineering – selection after higher secondary and then further education and thorough training in their specific discipline for a period of four years. A small band of officers for Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Engineers are well known for their expertise and efficient performance. It is well known that Indian Engineers, especially from IITs and Indian Doctors are in great demand abroad.

Now-a-days competition for getting any job has become so tough. It was not so earlier. At present, it is never too early for learning. Many coaching centres in Kota, or elsewhere in Rajasthan Assam and Punjab. These institutions have produced many toppers and send hundreds to engineering colleges. Some institutions have started special training programmes (Pre-foundation Career Care Program (PCCP). Their aim is to develop “better conceptual understanding”, “scientific temperament”, “mathematical aptitude”, “problem-solving skills”, “reasoning” and “competitive psychology” in Students. No matter whether students pronounce/comprehend these phrases or not.

Common-man opinion about government services – Public has lost faith in government services. Common-men feel that as the country is moving forward towards modernization and industrialization, value-system and old standards of effective governance are diminishing. Old zeal and stamina for strenuous work is also missing. The civil services are less disciplined and less united today than it was earlier.

When other democratic institutions have lost public faith, the Defense Services commands a high esteem in public’s eye for having a disciplined cadre of officers, who are dynamic, sincere, responsible and dedicated to their duties. The motto of Cadet system is “Catch them Young”. Why not follow for civil services as well, the model of Cadet system of recruitment and training for civil services too?

Instead of holding entrance examination for civil services and testing aptitude, leadership qualities, general ability and intellectual acumen of candidates, it would be better if selection for civil servants too is done earlier, say after higher secondary education. It would be easier for the government to organize their further education and training properly.

What is Cadet System? – Cadet system is practiced in the Defense Services. It facilitates end-oriented recruitment and further education/training of new recruits.  Cadets are selected at raw age (minimum 16&1/2 and maximum 19 and 1/2) through an initial written entrance competitive examination conducted by UPSC every year.  

It is followed by extensive interviews by Service Selection Board covering general aptitude, psychological tests, team skills, leadership qualities as well as physical and social skills, along with medical tests. It aims to develop qualities of character, discipline, teamwork, leadership and adventure in trainees.

Cadets of Armed Forces are selected at raw age (minimum 16&1/2 and maximum 19 and 1/2) through an initial written entrance competitive examination conducted by UPSC every year.  It is followed by extensive interviews by Service Selection Board covering general aptitude, psychological tests, team skills, leadership qualities as well as physical and social skills, along with medical tests.

There are three different modes of tests, for assessing the personality of candidates, who have qualified in written tests.  The first is a formal interview conducted by the Chairman of the Services Selection Board.  The results of this interview are treated only as indications of the personality traits and not a full assessment of the personality¹.  The interview is followed by situational tests, which are given for two or three consequent days to the candidates in small groups. These are meant to test the qualities of initiative, resourcefulness decisiveness, cooperation and leadership. These tests are conducted by an expert psychologist who follows planned methods of assessment.  Thereafter, a technical officer probes further into the personality of the individual candidates through what they call the `Projective Techniques’.

The training, which cadets receive at the outset of their career leaves life-long influence on them. They are trained under the strict surveillance of senior officers. The training system is so enforced and watched that there is no escape whatever from learning and acquiring knowledge about their duties/responsibilities. Senior officers pay attention to the training of young officers, who work under them.

Training of cadets at an age, when their minds are in formative stage, inculcates in them, maximum possible degree of qualities needed to perform their duties and make them capable to do efficiently specific jobs allotted each of them.

System of training in Armed forces – Successful cadets go for three years to NDA, Kharakwasla, Pune. Immediately after their selection, well-organized rigorous training programs are organized for all the three wings of armed forces, ie Army, Air Force and Navy. After three years training in NDA, cadets go training a Academies for one year, army cadets to Indian Military Academy (IMA) at Dehradun, Airforce cadets to Air Force Academy (AFA)at Dundigal, Hydrabad and Naval cadets to Ezhimala, Kerala. Here they undergo scientifically planned rigorous physical and academic training, aimed to gear them for life in Indian Armed Forces and performing their duties well.

The training is so tough and seriously imparted that either trainees come up to the desired standard or quit it in between, if they were unable to cope with the rigors of the training. The officers are given further education and initial training under strict supervision of seniors. By the time they pass out, they are well equipped with basic requirements of their jobs. 

Role models of catching them young – The fundamentals of the idea of cadet system – ‘catching them young and give them job-oriented training’ is not new in India. It gives to newcomers enough time to improve skills and qualifications, Also, it enables the government to organize accordingly the further education and training and develop in new recruits, abilities like teamwork, resilience, and foster confidence, loyalty and a sense of service to others. It has been proved to be successful in Defense Services and Railways (Jamalpur mechanical engineers of Indian Railways Services).

Indian Engineers (from IITs) and doctors (from reputed medical colleges), and a small band of Jamalpur Railway Mechanical engineers are well known for their expertise and efficient performance. They are in great demand abroad. Well-planned job-oriented education and training system develops team spirit, prepares candidates for interaction at individual-to-individual level (colleagues), interaction with superiors/sub-ordinates/peers.

Many coaching institutes, in Kota, or elsewhere in Rajasthan Assam and Punjab admit even Std VIII 13-14-year-old pass-outs to imbibe new knowledge, intellectual qualities, new attitudes and new skills. There, they are trained to develop “scientific temperament, mathematical aptitude, problem-solving skills, reasoning and competitive psychology”. The coaching system of these institutes prepares teenagers to take timely decisions, to be devoted to duty, and adopt to changing circumstances. They have produced many toppers and send hundreds to reputed institutes of higher education.

Better Conceptual Understanding – No doubt, teenage is the best time in human life to learn and develop “better conceptual understanding”, mental and physical capacities for their future roles. Minds of teenagers are in most creative, energetic and formative stage. It is the right time promote, through well-planned system of training, their social, ethical, emotional, physical and cognitive competencies through and develop their personality in full.

Catch them young and then mold them into required frame – Seeing the inherent weaknesses in Indian education system and recruitment system, would it not be better if government follows Cadet system. Selection to various government services be made immediately after higher secondary education at a raw age, when the minds of aspirants are still energetic, creative and are in a formative stage. Best time to select officials in various Government Services is around 18-24. Many studies say that around this age-group human brains’ processing power and detail memory peaks up and lasts for 5 more years. Afterwards it is a downhill pattern.

Idea of ‘Catch them young’ is not new to India. Indian Engineers (from IITs) and doctors (from reputed medical colleges), and a small band of Jamalpur Railway Mechanical engineers are well known for their expertise and efficient performance. They are in great demand abroad also. They follow the principle of catch them young and then give end-oriented further education and training.

“Catching them young” would facilitate the government to organize for civil servants, an intensive and comprehensive end-oriented training for the multi-facet jobs in various colleges and institutions. It would make it easier for the government to select candidates with dynamism, knowledge and develop in them skills. It would give the new recruits enough time to get “job-oriented” intensive preliminary and on-job training, that too, during formative and most energetic years of life. It would also facilitate the government to organize better arrangements for the further education and training of new ones.

Twenty first century demands that new knowledge, new attitudes, new skill should be inculcated in civil servants too according to the increasing and diversified needs of development administration of a Welfare state. Training system should not only enable new recruits to acquire intellectual knowledge and qualities required for performing their specific jobs qualifications, but also inculcate in them emotional qualities and capacities required for doing their jobs like teamwork, resilience, and foster in them confidence, loyalty and a sense of service. It should enable trainees to acquire qualities like social purposefulness, ability to understand socio-economic, political and problems and its implications, resourcefulness of solving them, capacity for teamwork and flair for leadership.

Selection a little earlier and job-oriented training would enable the young civil servants to understand and solve administrative, political and economic problems. They would be able to develop creative thinking, dynamism, up-to-date knowledge in their respective areas, awareness of professional norms, good fellowship, ability to cooperate, alertness in grasping a situation, quickness in assimilating relevant facts and persuasiveness in presenting their point of view.

Conclusion – The responsibility to facilitate public to live a peaceful, safe and secure life and taste the fruits of development, tends to give tremendous administrative powers to the government services. Its working affects daily life of the people the most. Therefore, Government should to be careful about right selection of personnel as “Authority without wisdom becomes like a heavy axe without an edge” (Anne Bradstreet)

Steps required to make administrative system more meaningful and effective, these steps could be taken – 

• It should be ensured that political considerations, either in recruitment or in discipline and control be reduced to the minimum.
• Foundation training should be made compulsory for levels of government services, whether technical or non-technical;
• Super structure of knowledge, skills, quality of leadership and sense of service should be raised on the foundation of discipline;
• Education and training institutions should be strict, so that trainees do not take it for granted or lightly.
• Training should be job-oriented;
• Since 70% of the Indian population lives in villages, civil servants should be familiarized soundly and intimately with the conditions, organizations, needs and aspirations of village people;
• Civil servants should be trained to lead a simple life;
• Senior officers should pay adequate attention and time to the training task;
• The government should create a working atmosphere in the offices so that qualities like receptivity, originality, initiative, courage and sympathetic attitude towards masses, could be developed fully, while working;
• The three partners in training – the organization, the training institute and the participant – should interact out of knowledge and understanding;
• The training needs should be assessed properly by conducting job-evaluation and research and onward studies;
• Instead of depending upon foreign material, adequate training material should be prepared and developed locally;
• Right methods and techniques should be chosen for various training programs;
• Selection of trainees should be done with great care;
• Enough motivation should be there for trainees, so that they can take their training seriously;
• Top-level officers should give full cooperation to training activities;
• Every training program should be evaluated properly;
• There should be regular program review sessions,
• The selection of the trainers should also be done with great care. 
• Conclusion – At the end it can be said again that as far as initial recruitment in the government services for both general category and SC/ST aspirants is concerned, ‘Catch them young’, a reduction in the age limit would be a wonderful and much-needed” reform, but there is fear in the mindset of successive governments that they will have to pay a political price for taking such an action. it is a politically touchy subject for governments.
• There is a fear of mobilization by civil services aspirants, and no one wants to disturb the status quo. Reducing the age limit will alienate the unemployed youth in the country, who appear for the exams year after year with the hope of making it to the civil service. A lot of frustration develops among those, who do not qualify finally. And for successful candidates, the effective career span is affected, with the result that many retire before reaching higher posts.
• The age of induction into the civil services should definitely be reduced. Around 30 years of age many aspirants have to shoulder family responsibilities as well. It reduces their physical and mental capacities to give undivided attention to any of the two.
• Like any other profession, a civil servant needs adequate training. When candidates, up till the age of 38, are inducted into the civil services, they get a much smaller training period. Some essential qualities, like commitment, sincerity, integrity, need to be inculcated in civil servants. After a certain age, attitudes harden. At higher age, it becomes difficult to mold the attitude of a candidate.
  
  

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[i]            Chandra Vipin,  Modern India, p158.

Reform Perform and Transform I

Indian Armed forces and new Agnipath Scheme 

Introduction – Way back on December 9, 1946, Mr. V.N. Narayan had said, “At best of times, India is ungovernable country of diversities, conflicts and problems”.[i] Mr. Nani Palkiwala expressed the same feeling after 50 years of self-rule, which gave to India empty coffers, unfulfilled promises, political instability, fractured society and perpetual divide among different groups along caste and community lines.  He said, “Our legal systems have made life too easy for criminals and too difficult for law abiding citizens”.[ii] A touch here, a push there may make India ungovernable. Governance of a pluralistic society, like India, is a sensitive and challenging exercise.

Adolescence is the transitional period of human. During this period, adolescents pass through many changes mental, physical, emotional, sex-related or moral etc. Sometimes it becomes difficult to control frequent mood changes and aggressive behavior of their adolescent for parents, especially in families, where both are having paid jobs. Some teen-agers even run away from home without the permission of their parents. Juvenile (under the age of 18) related issues are escalating day by day and are causing many socio-economic problems. Population explosion and the increasing numbers of unemployment amongst Indian youth are adding fuel into fire.

Why Agnipath scheme? – Teenage is the best time in whole of human life to promote through their social, ethical, emotional, physical and cognitive competencies and develop their personality in full, to educate and train youngsters and develop skills for their future roles. At this stage, minds of youngsters are at the most creative, energetic and formative stage. They are free from the responsibilities of familial/social norms and obligations. It is the right time to discipline and develop mental and moral faculties of youngsters, which embraces formation of habits, manners and character. This is the right time to inculcate in them quality of righteousness, discipline and habit of hard work. It is most energetic, creative time of human life, when minds of teenagers are in a formative stage.

Taking notice of all these issues, Government of India launched Agni path scheme in 2022 to give opportunity to Indian youth to serve in the Armed forces as Agnivir for four years. And on completion of four years, they can join the mainstream of work force and pursue their career in jobs of their choice as disciplined, dynamic, motivated and skilled workers.

Besides, the objective to launch this scheme has been to give opportunity to youth to serve the nation, enhance youthful profile of Armed forces, to attract young talents so that they become aware of latest developments in the areas of their work, and imbibe in them qualities like integrity, teamwork, commitment etc.

Time to make necessary reforms – It has been felt necessary for a long time to impart new knowledge, new skills, and to inculcate new attitudes in armed forces through a well-planned scheme to reform its recruitment, training and systematic arrangement of postings. To enable the armed forces to meet present day challenges, it has been felt necessary to inculcate in newly recruited cadets, new skills, new attitude, new spirit and new knowledge.

Armed forces in India – Armed forces mean the military forces of Republic of India. It consists of three professional uniformed services – Army (divided into six operational commands), Navy (deployed under three area command), and Air-force. Armed forces are there to protect the nation from external and internal threats, maintaining peace and security within Indian borders and also conducting rescue operations during national calamities and disasters is the responsibility of the armed forces. More responsibilities, all the important institutions of the government should be better equipped to meet the challenges.   

Rapidly changing and turbulent atmosphere – Indian army is facing difficulties due to rapidly changing and turbulent atmosphere, characterized by complexity and uncertainty continuous advancement technological advancement, especially in the arena of information technology, and rapidly changing war-techniques of the 21^st century’s digital world.

Pay attention to quality of education and training – Since independence, Government of India has been pre-occupied with quantitative expansion. As a result of its efforts, Literacy rate has gone up from 16.6% in 1951 to 77.7% in 2021.  Having achieved quantitative goals, attention needs to be paid to qualitative goals in terms of an education and training system, which could prepare younger generation to be responsible, confident, mature and able to develop balanced personality. Only proper system of education at right time can help to achieve the desired goals. 

Pre-entry Education and training just before joining the real world of job-market – Education and training system should be formative rather than informative. It should lead them to creative thinking rather than only learning. It should instill strong personal conviction and right values to motivate young children’s actions along with knowledge. It should broaden their minds and develop their mental and physical faculties.  

Pre-entry (vocational) trainingfor teenagers before joining the main work-force of the nation – No system, howsoever carefully designed can never replace the pre-entry training before joining main workforce of the nation. Some advantages of pre-entry training are – 

• It brings together the candidates coming from heterogeneous segments of society with divergent educational and cultural backgrounds. 
• It acquaints candidates with the people, with whom they will work and with the atmosphere, in which they will work. It will help mostly the teenagers to know rules, regulations, privileges, hour of work, etc within a short period.  
• Familiarize the youth quickly with the background and general objectives of their respective unit to rest of the organization. 
• While working in a unit, list of published material and reference related to the work will be available to Agnivir. It will help them to become familiar with real-life situations, related to their specific area of work. 

Purpose of formal pre-entry education and training is to instil in youngsters’ qualities of ‘Head, Heart and Hand’. It should enable them to articulate their half-baked inchoate feelings and impressions, improve their power of reasoning, analysing and appreciation of problems or situations. It should enable them to take decisions, be devoted to duty, to adopt to changing circumstances and develop in them pride for their nation and its heritage and culture.

It aims to prepare the youth for income generating jobs in different spheres of work. Need-based and well-organised pre-entry education & training during the formative years of human life is always quite useful for any nation.

Pre-entry education and training in India – The idea of pre-entry vocational education and training is not foreign to India. Formal pre-entry training is available for cadets of NDA and others. After qualifying UPSC entrance examination, cadets get well-planned and well-organized training in NDA & IMA for four years being posted in armed forces as lieutenant (Commissioned Officer). After selection through various competitive examination after passing out class XII examination, candidates go through an intensive theoretical and practical training for four years.

Such a vocational training has been a success. The smartness and efficiency of NDA cadets is well appreciated within India. Indian engineers and doctors are in great demand abroad. They get good jobs even in technologically advanced nations like USA or England.  

Agnipath scheme as a pre-entry-program  for non-commissioned personnel– Through Agnipath scheme, Agnipath program, government intends to introduce  a pre-entry training program for Indian youth. Four-years-experience as Agnivirs, through direct participation in Indian Army, prepares them to apply previous academic and work experience to real job situations, once they enter into main workforce of the nation after.  The fourfold purpose of Agnipath scheme is to facilitate pre-entry training to youth, before they join the main workforce of the nation is to give an idea to candidates about the real atmosphere of work place –  

1. Imparting knowledge; 
2. Shaping attitudes; 
3. Cultivating skills; and 
4. Building work habits  

At the outset, such a training –  

1. Inculcates in youth the maximum possible degree of efficiency to the specific job allotted to them. The aim is not only to enable the candidate to perform the current job efficiently, but also to equip him for other duties and appropriately develop his capacity for higher work with more responsibility. 
2. Develop team spirit means to prepare the candidates for – 
3. Interaction at individual-to-individual level 
4. Interaction with boss  
5. Interaction at group level – with groups, which may include his superiors, peers, or subordinates. 

Need of reform in recruitment system – Since long, it has been felt in certain quarters that two issues stand out here: unlike objective tests, the assessment is not based on universal standards. It is also not possible since each person is unique and no standardisation of assessment is possible. The tests heavily rely on clinical judgement and are low on validity and reliability in absence of standardised criteria for comparing test results. The system is based on psychoanalytical psychology that argues that humans have conscious and unconscious attitudes and motivation that are beyond or hidden from conscious awareness. It has been felt that before it is too late, it is better to make necessary and long-awaited reforms in the recruitment system of Army. The result of this realization is New Agnipath Scheme. 

Structure of Defence forces – In Defence, there are two categories of personnel:  

• Commissioned and 
• Non- commissioned. 

Recruits of Commissioned posts are appointed as lieutenants, Captains, Majors, Brigadiers and Generals etc.  Non- commissioned recruits fill the posts of Lance-naik, Naiks, Havildars etc. They are recruited in large numbers and are led by the commissioned officers. They do much heavier physical duties.

There is no change in the selection procedure of commissioned officers. However, through Agnipath scheme some reforms have been introduced for the selection of soldiers/non-commissioned personnel.  

• Process of selection of Commissioned personnel – So far, Indian Armed forces (Defence) is known for having most objective, systematic & impartial system of selection of its new commissioned personnel. The system is in vogue for over sixty years now without change both in procedure and tests except minor addition of screening test that was introduced in 1998 in Army selection Boards and later adopted by Air force and the Naval Selection Boards. Interviewing Officers are senior persons, whereas the Group Testing Officers (GTOs) are relatively young in service and slightly stricter in their assessment. 

Responsibility of appointments in Defence Forces is mainly entrusted to DRDO (Appointments) Section. It mainly looks after policy/ interpretation of rules and references to nodal Ministries/ UPSC in matters pertaining to DPC/ Review DPC, Recruitment Rules/ Service Rules, commercial employment, direct recruitment to Grade A&B officers through UPSC Sanction of upper age relaxation/qualifications, reconstruction of service documents etc. 

Direct recruitment to Gr. A & B posts is done through UPSC entrance examination, subsequent SSB officer-candidate selection run by DRDOs’ Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR). There are over 5000 officer cadets under training at any given time (NDA 2000; increasing to 2500; IMA 1800: OTA Chennai 750; OTA Gaya 500). 

The present cadet system of selection, education and training for commissioned officers in Armed forces is at raw age, is well appreciated very much by all. Assessment of potential candidates for training in different training academies is done by the Services Selection Boards (SSB, Services Selection Boards). There is a vibrant atmosphere in the Selection Boards. GTO Grounds, Psychological Testing Halls and Interview Rooms are kept clean and well organised all the time. 

Interviewing officers – Interviewing officers are trained by Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR) and practical training for them is conducted by Services Selection Boards (SSBs). The training of interviewing officers for all the three wings of Indian army (consisting of interviewing officers, group testing officers, civil psychologists and technical officers) is intensive and fairly comprehensive.  

Group Testing Officers (GTOs) – Group Testing Officers (GTOs) are provided with a technical manual with lays down various test processes and explains various concepts of group dynamics. GTOs draw their inferences based on observed behaviour of the candidates during different exercises. The ratings are subjectively assigned on the fifteen qualities and surprisingly they generally matched with the ratings of the Interviewing officers and the psychologists. This sort of standardisation is taken as the strength of the system and a strong measure of validity of the tests and the process. Interviewing officers on the hand conduct a loosely structured interview of nearly half hour duration and rate the candidates again on the same fifteen qualities. Once again, the variation with the psychologists and the GTOs is minimal in most cases. 

Clearance rate of the GTOs is minimum, may be since they actually observe the candidates performing on the ground. Interviewing Officers clear more candidates since the assessment is based on the verbal answers alone and it creates. In case of all the three agencies the testing involves rating of inherent competencies that are desirable for training and later functioning as leaders of men in extreme stressful conditions. All the competencies have been provided to the assessors by the psychologists and it is the Institute of Psychological Research that trains, monitors and guides all the three sets of assessors. Psychologists are supposed to visit different places of India, periodically to get a feel of the conditions under which Indian defence forces function. 

Psychological tests are supposed to test fifteen qualities namely, Effective Intelligence, reasoning ability, Organising Ability, Power of expression, social adaptability, Co-operation, Sense of Responsibility, Initiative, self Confidence, Speed of Decision, Ability to Influence the Group, Liveliness, Determination, Courage and stamina.  These fifteen qualities are arranged through a process of co-relations in four different sections called factors, these are Planning and Organising, Social adjustment, Social Effectiveness and Dynamic. Interestingly Moral Values and integrity and some equally important qualities have not been explicitly listed for assessment. In any case the justification provided is that these get covered in Sense of responsibility.  

Individuals have inherent strengths and weaknesses, and have a natural inclination toward success or failure in specific areas based on their innate characteristics. For placement and allotting work to cadets in Indian army, an aptitude test is taken. It is used to determine cadet’s skill or propensity to succeed in a given activity.   

Technical Officers also act as psychologists besides co-ordinating the functioning of psychological testing in each SSB. DIPR is the apex technical body that monitors the work of assessment in the SSBs besides conducting research for the defence forces on various subjects including assessment and also co-ordinates the research projects of the psychologist of the SSBs. Funding for such research is also arranged by DIPR. 

Undergraduate entry level examination for joining the National Defence Academy and Naval Academy has two papers: Maths and General Ability. The graduate entry written examinations for the three defence Services comprise papers in English, General Knowledge and matric-level Maths; the latter paper being waived off for entry to Officers Training Academies. 

SSB interviews candidates for 5 days, Day 1 is the ‘screening’ Test after which 60-70% candidates are rejected. Day 2 is for Psychologist’s Tests; Days 3-4 are for Group Tasks and Day 5 for Conference (Results). Personal interviews are conducted between Days 2-4.

• Recruitment of non-commissioned personnel under Agnipath Scheme – Recently, after years of deliberations and studying the recruitment process and tenure of soldiers in several countries, Government of India, under the Prime Ministership of Mr. Modi has made certain reforms in the selection and working system of non-commissioned personnel. The new defence recruitment reform, which has been cleared by the Cabinet Committee on Security, will come into effect immediately. A new scheme of Agnipath has been launchedon 14^th June 2022. 

Aim of Agnipath scheme – The aim of the government is to equip the youngsters with birds’ eye-view of law, rules and regulations, principles of government functioning, finance, accounting and other developmental activities, Constitution. It aims to impart both theoretical and practical on-the-job training to make youth of the day more suited to the requirements and demands of 21^st century. The scheme gives attention to develop a sound foundation in the candidates’ outlook and behaviour, so that they can function anywhere as efficient, confident, hardworking and responsible citizens of India. It aims to make the working atmosphere of the nation more efficient, to impart knowledge, skills, discipline; develop in them positive attitude; and train the youth to deal with the complexities of real life – with pressures, conflicting motives, limited sources, or uncertainties. 

Age-bar – Aspirants between the ages of 17.5 years and 21 years will be eligible to apply. This year only the upper age limit is extended up to 23 years, because appointments were frozen for two years due to Corona pandemic. They will be appointed annually. Their tenure will be for 4 years. Recruitment will be done twice a year through rallies. Standards of selection will be the same. During these four years, they will be trained for 6 months. Remaining 3&1/2 years They will serve in their respective departments under the guidance of commissioned officers.  

Four years’ program for Agnivirs – Selected soldiers recruited under the scheme will be called Agnivirs. Under the new Agnipath scheme, around 45,000 to 50,000Agnivirs will be recruited annually for four years in Indian Army across the three services. The recruitment standards will remain the same. Recruitment will be done twice a year through rallies. These four years includes 6 months training and rest of the time they will serve in their respective departments under the guidance of commissioned officer, when they will get practical work experience (on-the-job training) in different departments of army, navy and air force.  

After four years, only 25% of a batch will be able to be recruited back into their respective services, for a period of 15 years. Rest 75% will start second   career according to their qualifications attitude and aptitude. Agnipath program, in a way, is to give the younger people pre-entry training before joining the main workforce of the nation. It will inculcate in them qualities of three H’s, “Head, Heart & Hand”. 

All Agniveers will be well-trained and more qualified to join main workforce of the nation by the time, they complete their tenure as Agnivir.  They will be about 22-23 years old. It is the time, when a young man looks for a job. Working under Agnipath scheme will develop their capacity for doing their work more efficiently. It will enable a large number of youths not only to perform the current job efficiently, but also equip them for other duties.         

Work for four years in army will result in Agniveers’ becoming more disciplined, more confident, developing team-work capability and an all-India perspective. It will improve their capacity to accept responsibility and develop appreciation for discipline and teach them value of time and human effort. 

Educational qualifications for Agniveers – The scheme of Agnipath is very useful for most of semi-literate unemployed youth (17-23 years old), who do not want to continue their further education/training and wish to earn money.  

Indian army has listed down the eligibility criteria for recruitment six categories of posts. Each candidate can apply in only one category. If anyone is found registered for multiple trades/categories, he will be dis-qualified.    

Post Name	Qualification required
1.    Asgnivieer General duty (GD) All Arms	Class X Matric with% marx and minimum 33% in each subject
2.    Agnivir Technical Aviation (All Arms)	10+2 Intermediate exam in Science stream with physics, chemistry, maths and English with minimum 50% marks in aggregate and 40% in each subject.
3.    Agniveer Technical Aviation and Ammunition Examiner	10+2 Intermediate exam in Science stream with physics, chemistry, maths and English with minimum 50% marks in aggregate and 40% in each subject.
4.    Agniveer Clerk/Store Keeper (Technical) All Arms	10+2 in any stream with minimum 60% marks aggregate and minimum 50% marks in each subject.
5.    Agniveer Tradesman 10 pass	Class X High School Exam passed in any recognized board in India. Minimum 33%in each subject.
6.    Agniveer Tradesman 8th pass	Class 8th exam passed in any recognized Board in India minimum 33% in each subject.

Physical measurement will be carried out at the rally sites along with a medical test. Those who pass the medical test will be given an admit card for a Common Entrance Examination (written test).   

Plus points of the new Agnipath scheme – It is hoped that new Agnipath scheme will provide “A unique opportunity to youth to serve the nation and contribute to nation-building”; “make Armed forces profile to be youthful and dynamic”; “Offer attractive financial package for the Agnivirs”; “train Agnivirs in the best institutions and enhance their skills and qualifications”; offer “Adequate re-employment opportunities for those, who leave the army after 4 years to emerge as role models for the youth”; and ensure availability of well-disciplined and skilled  youth with military ethos in civil society.” In addition to all this, it will make the forces more modern, tech-savvy and well-equipped to deal with the challenges ahead. But it should not be forgotten that there is or can be a world of difference between what, a government plans and how it implements the proposed plan. 

• “A unique opportunity to youth to serve the nation and contribute to nation-building” – The report by Unified District Information System of Education Plus (UDISE+) revealed that the annual dropout rate of secondary school students was 14.6% in India (01.-Apr-2022). More boys drop out of school than girls at secondary level in India. Children from low-income families are more likely to drop out because of the need to get a job, parenthood, or having to care for family members. Agnipath scheme is a golden opportunity for thousands of those dropped out teenagers, who don’t/can’t study further and wish to be financially independent. Agnipath scheme provides a unique opportunity to them to contribute to nation-building. 
• Inculcate in teenagers, income generating skill – Agnipath scheme plans to create an atmosphere for Agnivirs to attain through a well-planned and well-organised, income-generating skills for four years during their formative period of life. They will work in different departments of three wings of Armed forces and contribute directly to nation- building. The 4 years-time spent, as agniveer, is expected to acquaint candidates with the people, with whom they will work and with the atmospheres, in which they will work. It will help the younger generation to know rules, regulations, privileges, hour of work, etc within a short period. 
• Reduce the Defence bill considerably – The scheme will reduce Defence bill considerably. At present, Government of India spends a huge pension amount. Defence budget is usually divided into salary, purchase of weapons, and pension. Out of these three, the biggest component is of pension. Advanced nations are cutting down expenditure on the size of their Armed Forces. They are concentrating on research, technologies and buying new weapons.
• Optimum utilization of the most energetic and creative time of human life – 15 to 24 years of age, in human life, is the time, most formative, creative and energetic and best time to develop skills for their future roles. This is the time, when their minds are free from the worries of social norms and obligations. The 4 years-time spent, as agniveer, is expected to acquaint candidates with the people, with whom they will work and with the atmospheres, in which they will work. It will help the younger generation to know rules, regulations, privileges, hour of work, etc within a short period. It is time to promote through activities and experiences their social, ethical, emotional, physical and cognitive competencies, so that they can achieve their full potential. According to National youth policy of India (2003), youth population accounts for 373 million (30.9%) in the age group of 15-35year. 

“Offer attractive financial package for the Agnivirs” – During four years tenure of Agnivirs, they will get a salary of Rs 30,000 per month, along with additional benefits. Out of it, he will get 29000 in hand and rest will be deposited in the Fund called Seva Nidhi. Same amount will also be deposited by the government of India, in their account. At the end of the four-year period, each soldier will get Rs 11.71 lakh as a lump sum tax-free amount. They will also get a Rs 48 lakh life insurance cover for the four years. In case of death, the pay-out will be over Rs 1 crore, including pay for the unserved tenure. However, those hired under Agnipath scheme will get no pension benefit. Govt will give them one-time lump sum amount of about 11 lakh at the end of their four year tenure. Over and above all, Agniveers will have high stature in the society.

Future of Agniveers is secure – No avenue is closed or debarred for agniveers. First batch of Agniveers will retire after 5 years from today. Both their present and future is secured. All doors of second career are open for other 75% Agniveers. There is plethora of opportunities for them in a rapidly growing Indian economy (including defence sector).

After completion of four years tenure as Agnivirs, they need not worry about their second career. They have a choice either to join the regular armed forces again or get re-employed elsewhere in government, public or private sector.

Right time to start a new career in main work-force of the nation – At present, under normal circumstance, a large number of 16-17 years old youth do not want to study further, whatever may be the reason. Many of them, after finishing their secondary or higher secondary education either go to formal educational institution for higher studies or join training poli-technic institutions to learn income-generating-skills.

By the time they attain the age 24-25, they start searching a suitable job for themselves. Thousands of other semi-literate persons join labour force working either in factories or in agricultural sector. A large number of young boys remain unemployed as well. Unemployment is one of the reasons for deterioration of law-and-order situation in the country, indiscipline in the society, and increasing juvenile crimes, agitations and violence. 

Government will help Agnivirs , who leave the service in military after four years. They will be provided with skill certificates and bridge courses. Even under normal circumstances too, a youth search for a regular employment usually around the age of 25 to 30. After passing out higher secondary education, young boys remain busy in getting formally further education and training in various higher educational institutions, colleges or polytechnics. The purpose of higher education and training is also to develop their power of concentration, capacity of attention and observation.  

Opportunities for Agniveers on completion of four years tenure as Agniveer –Government will help rehabilitate Agnivirs/soldiers who leave the services after four years. They will be provided with skill certificates and bridge courses. The impetus will be to create entrepreneurs. The asset of Agniveers will be their age plus around 11 lakh cash in hand. They can use for this amount for further studies, or training or to start their own business. Otherwise, they can start new career of their choice to get a regular salary, according to their qualification, attitude and aptitude. Everywhere, experience as agniveer is in their advantage.  

After completion of 4 years, Agnivirs can apply for enrolment in the regular cadre. 25% candidates, so enrolled as regular cadre will continue for another 15 years. 75% Agnivirs will leave the army. A number of institutes/ organizations under government, public or private sectors will prefer to appoint these trained. skilled and disciplined candidates from now onwards known as Agniveers. Different private and public sector organizations will prefer to appoint trained Agniveers rather than appointing a raw hand. Institutions like Short Service Commissioned officers in army, who are also selected only for five years. Or they can apply for permanent commissioned officers. They can apply for jobs in armed police forces at the centre and provinces. Four years of service, training, background and the army career in Border security force (BSF), CRPF, ITBP, CISF, Sashrasth Seema Bal (SSB), NSG and Special Protection Force etc. There are several announcements for giving preference for absorption of Agniveers by several ministries also. 

Doubts about the new the scheme – Immediately after the announcement of the scheme, Agnipath scheme of short-term recruitment in Armed forces prompted sharp criticism from some sections of society, like ex-servicemen, different political parties, and candidates aspiring to join Army. Thousands of students protested in Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Madhya Pradesh and Haryana. Critics of the scheme thought that it is a disastrous move. They asked the government to scrap the proposal. Their concern was –   

• There is or can be a world of difference between what government says, what it plans to do and how it implements the scheme. 
• Will the scheme be able to solve the severe problem of unemployment? 
• Short term tenure of Agnivirs will harm the effectiveness of Army.
• Is it the right time to introduce this new Agnipath scheme of short-term recruitment in Armed forces when the whole world is passing through rapidly changing and turbulent environment, characterized by complexity and uncertainty? There has not been a single day after the Second World-War, when the world has been free from conflicts. 
• No rank, no pension, no direct recruitment for 2 years shows no stable future after four years.   
• Is the new system of the selection of Sainiks better than the selection procedure of British-inherited system? 
• Are the government’s training academies properly prepared to train selected Agnivirs cadets to face emerging challenges? Are the training institutes fully equipped to inculcate in new recruits’ qualities like integrity, ethics, morality, reliability, emotional stability, thinking-on-the-feet skills, situational awareness and physical fitness besides standard leadership qualities into focus besides ensuring pre-selection security checks. 
• New scheme will hit professionalism, ethos and fighting spirit of the forces.  
• 75% candidates will be demobilized with certificate and the exit package (11.71Lakh. There will be no pension or gratuity, called Seva Nidhi. 
• It can potentially jeopardise the future of countless youths.  
• It is not wise to reduce the size of armed forces, especially when the world is passing through a critical time. There has not been a day after the second world war when the world was free from conflicts. Conflicts both hot and cold are raging in some part of the world or other all the time, most recent one being war between Ukraine and Russia (2022). Such a situation emerged because humans have ignored basic human values.
• Opposition parties came down heavily on government’s scheme of Agnipath saying that the scheme throttles the voice of lacs of unemployed youths. They demanded a roll-back.

Somehow Government remained firm in this regard. On the presumption that short duration tenure of Agnivirs will harm the effectiveness of Armed forces, the government replied back that such a system exists in several countries. Hence it is already “tested out and considered best practice for an agile army” 

Conclusion – There are lots many things, which can never get into books/lectures. It is always said that if recruitment is properly done, an individual has the capacity to do his job effectively and efficiently. But what brings efficiency in any occupation, is something he has still to learn and it can only be learnt by experience. Youngsters usually learn on job from their mistakes and acquire skills through practice. On job, learning is not backed by compulsion, but is more or less self-inspired, based on self-observation and guidance by superiors. If senior officer guides and train his juniors properly, positive results can definitely be achieved.   

Pre-requisites to make a scheme, successful – There are certain steps, which are needed to make any plan/ scheme a success – 

• Identification of need 
• Analyse the need organisation-wise, individual-wise, category-wise, level-wise and function-wise. 
• Identification of objectives, 
• Top-level support, 
• Impartial selection of candidates, and  
• Most important is continuous evaluation. Evaluation is a necessary tool for making any reform effective.  

In the case of Agnipath scheme, government of India has taken all these steps. However, immediately after the announcement of reforms to be done, some sections of society started violent protests and asked the government to withdraw the scheme on imaginary grounds. Critics do not try to visualise that – 

1. Lower age profile – The short-term induction of teenagers through Agnipath scheme will replace the legacy system of recruitment and lower the age profile of three services. It could ensure a fitter army and create technically adept war-fighting force capable of meeting the challenges of 21^st century.  
2. New scheme will make army leaner and thinner. Some doubt that is it a wise step to reduce the number of armed forces personnel. It has been seen that the times of face-to-face war is a thing of past. Now most of the wars are fought beyond visual range war. In it, number does not matter. What is significant is now is technology and quality and knowledge of the use of modern weapons. Therefore, lots of nations are cutting down expenditure on the size of their armed forces. They are concentrating on research, technologies and buying new weapons. 
3. Participation of youth in Army – Participation in army, though for a short period could help the youth of the nation become more empathetic, responsible and confident.  
4. Utilizing meaningful youth participation will help the government to structure its future programs, policies and services successfully.   
5. Jobs according to attitude and aptitude –The scheme gives youngsters opportunity to choose their second career according to their attitude, aptitude or inherent strengths and weaknesses. Success or failure in any area of work always depends on natural inclination and innate characteristics of individuals.  
6. Before joining the main work-force of nation, short term of induction in army will broaden the vision of youth and develop their personality. They will get a good atmosphere and opportunity to learn under the guidance of senior army officers and participate directly in its working. It will increase their competencies, confidence/self-esteem, skills and knowledge.  
7. Enhanced individual development will provide youth with opportunities to generate change for sustainable development of society and nation.  
8. Increased self- discipline– Indian Army’s foundation in discipline 
9. This will also lead to availability of a higher-skilled workforce to the economy, which will be helpful in productivity gain and overall GDP growth.  

Let us hope that new Agnipath scheme will provide “A unique opportunity to youth to serve the nation and contribute to nation-building”; “save teenagers from adopting wrong path of violence and agitations”, “make Armed forces profile to be youthful and dynamic”; “train Agnivirs in the best institutions and enhance their skills and qualifications”; offer “Adequate re-employment opportunities for those, who leave the army after 4 years to emerge as role models for the youth”; “ensure availability of well-disciplined and skilled  youth with military ethos in civil society”; and in addition to all this, it will make “the forces more modern, tech-savvy and well-equipped to deal with the challenges ahead”. 

 

[i] Quoted from The Tribune, dated 21.6.92, p21.

[ii]   Palikawala, We the People – The Lost Decade, p3.

 

Indian Culture and Its Sanatan Dharma

What is culture? – Culture the combination of customs, ideas, beliefs, institutions and norms etc. of any specific society and how it thinks, behaves and acts. Continuing advanced/high level mannerism of any specific society becomes civilization. Civilization includes all aspects social, political, economic and spiritual/material development, be it the language, forms of government, culture, industry, and common social norms. It defines the parameters of the shared way of life in different spheres like having a shared and long-term sense of closeness in language, beliefs, and cultural artifacts such as art, literature, music, and religion etc. over a large population. Culture usually enhances quality of life and increases overall well-being for both individuals and communities.

Culture varies from place to place and country to country. Its development is based on historical process operating in a local, regional or national context. Archeologists have found evidences, that among all the well known ancient civilizations, China, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Indus Valley, Indian civilization, presents one of the oldest, uninterrupted, continuous living civilization in the whole world. It is mainly based on Vedic literature and philosophy, originated and flourished in northern parts of India and later on spread throughout India. The word ‘Vedic’ is derived from the word ‘Vid’ meaning ‘Knowledge’ and signifies’ ‘knowledge par excellence’.

Sanatan Dharma (Principle of eternal values) Dharma of Vedic philosophy has played the role of an anchor for Indians, which has always kept their boat in safe harbor. Now that the anchor is weakening. In recent past, India has been passing through turbulent times. The boat of Indian society is at the mercy of wild waves on stormy ocean of times. Many intellectuals, philosophers and reformers think that its Vedic culture along with Sanatan Dharma can still save the boat. For them Sanatan Dharma, in its pure form is one of the most scientific ideology and way of living ever developed anywhere in the world. Its values, systems and principles have always remained an inspiring icon of peace, harmony, compassion and other human values for the whole universe.

Origin of Vedic Culture – Vedic culture originated and developed during the period of Indus Valley Civilization (around 3300–1300 BCE on the Indo-Gangetic Plains, (in northern parts of India) and matured by 2600–1900 BCE). It spread/flourished throughout India during 1500 BC and 500 BC. The blending up of migrating social groups with that of the indigenous tribal people living in this region gave rise to Vedic Culture and its system of eternal values (Sanatan Dharma).

The origin of the Vedic culture cannot be traced in any single founder; neither can it be confined in one single authoritative text. Its knowledge has been handed down from time immemorial, earlier by verbal transmission and later on, in written form by the ancestor to succeeding generations. It has not prescribed final absolutes. It is a constant search for more knowledge. Vedas are not supposed to be the end of quest for knowledge. It is a non-ending process (Neti-Neti).

Ocean of knowledge in a jar – Values and systems of Vedic culture has passed on up-to present generation. ”Rig Veda”, dated to between 1500–1200 BCE is said to be the oldest  complete religious holy book that has survived till now. The priestly schools had devised a most remarkable and effective system of transferring knowledge to succeeding generations in the form of hymns, restricting it only to those, possessing brilliant feats of memory and capability to keep extreme sanctity. Later on, it was put together in ‘Vedas’, ‘Smritis’ ‘Sutras’, and ‘Upanishads’. Basham describes Vedic literature as “an ocean of knowledge in a jar.”[i]

Vedic literature, Scriptures and philosophy contains a vast reservoir of knowledge. It is found in ‘Vedas’, ‘Smritis’ ‘Sutras’, ‘Upanishads’. Ramayan, “Ramayan”, “Bhagvat Gita” and “Mahabharat” are the great epics of Hinduism. These are not merely the scriptures/religious/spiritual books, but also a perfect guide to lead a quality of life. Its values and systems have been passed on almost intact up-to the present generation. Principles of Vedic philosophy and its value systemstill commands the respect and attention of an average Indian and are followed by common men in India.

Its values and systems are  magnificent example of scientific division, fusion of various beliefs,  orderly arrangement of rules, in a few words, in different branches of human knowledge, covering almost all the aspects of life, be it phonetics, arts, literature, medicine, polity, metrics, law, philosophy, astrology or astronomy.

Foundation of Vedic Culture – The foundation pillars of the Indian civilization are the principles of Varna, Dharma and Karma, which give to the people, a purpose to live for and ideals to be achieved. Doctrine of Varna gives the Indian Society a stable, sustainable social structure, which distributes and organizes performance of various functions. It has made it possible for the people to lead a quality of life and ensured the continuity despite numerous foreign invasions, migrations and assimilation of various groups.

The doctrine of Dharma defines the duties and vocations for different sections of society, ensures social harmony and prevents rivalries and jealousies. Doctrine of Karma makes the inequalities, prevalent in the society, tolerable to an average Indian.

Together these principles laid the foundation stones of  Indian social structure and contributed to its growth. It has organized inter-relationship of various groups of society. These principles have given to the people a distinct character. It has defined their roles by distributing various functions and managed the performance to improve quality of life.

 In the past, these principles had wisely directed all the activities – social, political, intellectual or economic – into proper life functions and controlled its malfunctioning or dis-functioning. It had made it possible for people to reach a high level of intelligence having specialization in different areas. It contributed to all round growth of cultural heritage and encouraged self-discipline, consciousness, self-control and self-direction. Decentralized self-regulated systems were the mode in social, political and economic life in ancient India.

Principle of Varna based on Division of labour according to attitude and aptitude of an individual – Varna system is based on the principle of “division of labour”.  All the functions needed for maintenance and growth of the society are divided properly. According to the Vedic ‘Principle of Varna’ Indian society has been classified into four Varnas – Brahmins (Intellectuals), Kshatriyas Warriors), Vaishyas (Business Community) and Shudras (Service Class).

In the northern part of India there always were four Varnas, within which all the social groups came. In Dravidian South, Varna came comparatively late. In Western part of India, there was a fifth Varna also, known as Panchamas or untouchables. South Indians were more rigid in their ritual observances. (Basham)

Persons interested in learning and gaining knowledge were called Brahmins.  Physically strong persons were known as Kshatriyas (warriors). Persons having acumen were called Vaishyas (Business community). Each Varna is assigned a distinct function to perform. Earlier the placement in each Varna was not on the basis of birth, but according to attitude and aptitude.

Brahmins are members of the priestly class, one of the four Varnas or social groups based on occupation according to the as discussed in early Upanishads. Individuals having intellectual and spiritual qualities and positive mindset were put in the category of Brahmins. 

Clear-cut set of rights and duties for each Varna – Each Varna is assigned a distinct function to perform. There was no confusion or frustration on matter of work, because everybody had his traditional occupation. Each and every Varna serves the community in its own way. Brahmins have been assigned the pious duty of Brahmins to study, analyse the systems on the basis of their knowledge and set norms for common man, so that the whole society could benefit from their knowledge.

Members of all the four Varnas could live with dignity and honour with a feeling that he/she, too, is contributing something to the society.  Clear-cut definition of rights and duties for each caste, based on its traditional occupation, has developed clear vision of one’s responsibilities.  This separation of rights and duties combined with the principle of inter dependence provides its own system of checks and balances over arbitrary use of one’s authority. There has been an automatic decentralization of authority.

Assignment of work – Varna system had assigns different activities to different groups according to its natural endowment, qualities and aptitudes. (Bhagwat Gita, XVIII 41.) It believes that the whole world of activities is a result of complex intermixing of three basic qualities of human nature – goodness (Satwa), Passion (Rajas) and dullness (Tamas).  `Goodness” was associated with purity, peace and knowledge; `Passion” with comfort and action; and `Tamas” with ignorance, sloth, sleep and carelessness. (Mahabharata,  XI6, XIV7, XIV8) These qualities determine the tendencies, potentialities, limitations, traits and character of individuals and give them direction for action. `Adharma” (immoral behavior), “Alasya” (laziness) and Agyan (ignorance) are held responsible for evils, exploitation, and miseries of the people.

On the basis of natural inclinations, predominantly psychological characteristics, persons having `Sat” and `austerity”, Brahmins were especially given training in literary skills and spirituality. They were assigned the work of pursuing knowledge continuously. 

Similarly, Kashtriyas having `Rajas” quality, were befitting for actions of courage, bravery, power and protection of the weak.  Initially, according to “Smritis” it is not birth, but the qualities and deeds, which fitted one into a particular group. (Varna 180, 21, 23) But, later on, upbringing, atmosphere and convenience tended to make these groups hereditary.

Vedic culture has It has prepared an atmosphere for co-existence of different groups –  be it ruler or ruled/rich or poor. It has provided unity of culture throughout India and serves to give Indian society coherence, stability and continuity.

The strength of Vedic culture is proved by the facts: –

• Despite centuries of foreign rule over 75% of Indian population remains Hindu.
• Had it become obsolete, it would have given place to other religions and cultures.
• It influenced almost all other religions found in India.

The beauty of Vedic culture is that it has neither repulses any trend vehemently, nor allows others to sweep its established culture off its roots. It has adopted the path of assimilation. It does not force others to convert. It does not impose its beliefs, practices and customs on others. In the past, it has assimilated numerous social groups willing to join it.

As time passed on, different communities,  sects or faiths, whether foreign or indigenous, (be it Buddhism, Jainism, Dravidian, Islamic or European) have left some influence on the Vedic culture,  which has come down to the present generation in an unbroken chain of succession. It has led to some modifications and adaptations from time to time in Indian way of thinking, practices and systems.

Assimilation and fusion of different cultures has been a continuous process of the India civilization. A major cultural synthesis took place during 6th and 10th century, between Vedic Hindu culture, Buddhism and Dravidian culture. Another assimilation was seen after the 10th century, when the thinking of Arabs, Turks and Afghan, mainly guided by reason, influenced Indian thought. Sufi and Bhakti movements are examples of this. These two sects taught the people to love and respect all human beings irrespective of caste or creed. These also brought changes in the nature of mutual understanding, communal amity and accommodation. Once again, during the period between 18th century to 20th century, a major cultural synthesis took place with modernization and industrialization ushered in by the British.

Sanatan Dharma simple and with conformity with nature –  Sanatan Dharma is a set of eternal (beyond the time) values. It is the Universal Truth which sustains the very core of Universe and its beings. Sanatan Dharma nurtures the basic instincts of human beings in conformity with the forces of Mother Nature. After a deep study of basic physical, mental and spiritual needs, natural instincts, inherent attributes and natural behavioural pattern of human beings at different stages of life, it prepares a simple  compact life package. It was applicable to all, irrespective of the Varna, caste or creed for all time to come. Even today it is as relevant as it was earlier. According to it, following are the different stages in human life –

• Pre-Ashram stage (Infancy or Childhood) – At this stage, Society through family contributes. Individual remains Neutral. Task for family is to lay the foundation for the development of the personality of a child (say upto 5 years) with love and care.

• Stage I, Brahmcharya Ashram (Stage of Learning for an individual) – At this stage, Society is the giver and individual is recipient. It is a period of strict discipline. Individual has to be disciplined by elders by practicing “Saam (Equality}, Daam (Incentives), Dand (Punishment) and Bhed (Comparison). Purpose is learning and acquisition of knowledge. For mental and physical discipline Yoga and knowledge play an important role.

Guru/Teacher inculcates knowledge of all Aspects and ramification of Dharma and guides learner to get control over his senses, mind and intellect. Society rears, protects and gives its best as heritage  to individual.[i]

Individual has to lead a very simple life leaving all worldly comforts. Complete obedience is expected from  learners. It is a neutral phase for an individual.

• Stage II, Grahasthashram – At this stage, Society is the recipient, individual make contribution. Individual is  trustee and  Manager of social estate. Individual has direct contact with  society and makes direct contribution to  society consistent with the dictates of his own knowledge and conscience. It advises an individual to lead an active married life. His tasks are practice of Dharma and protection to his dependents with love and care.

This stage, the most energetic one, was regarded as the real ground to utilize one’s intellectual and physical capabilities. To indulge one-self in economic activities in order to fulfill one’s dreams and ambitions, to keep direct contact with the society, and to take proper care of the dependents, which included elders, children, members of extended family and strangers in need of help. It presents opportunities to practice and cultivate all the three Dharmas – Artha, Kama (fulfillment of duties and financial and material success for full enjoyment of life).

Society is recipient. Proper management of other three Ashrams depends on Grahasthashram, as their needs (like provision of food and financial help) are directly or indirectly supported by  householders.

Of all the Ashrams, Grihasthashram is given a high place of honour as it offers opportunities for practice and cultivation of all Guna and establishes direct contact with the society.

• Stage III, Vanaprastha Ashram (Adulthood withdrawal) – It is a neutral phase. Material success is not aim. It advises a person to prepare himself for loosening earthly bonds. It advises him to achieve salvation through good deeds and social service. Task assigned to this group is teaching Dharma and extended care.

• Stage IV, Sanyas (Renunciation) or Old age – It is a phaseofresignation and renunciation. A person is completely free from any obligation. Realization of Dharma and wisdom is the aim. It advises individual to achieve complete detachment and lead a simple life.

Earlier, when human life was not so complicated and men were closer to nature, people could follow the Sanatan Dharma without any hassle.  But in modern times, life has become quite difficult, materialistic and complex. Moral values are being eroded continuously It has become almost impossible to observe Sanatan Dharma truthfully in real life. It has been observed that people have become so greedy, that they are running blindly after money, power, position, name and fame even in their old age. They do not wish to lead a retired life at all  till the end.

Conclusion – Many principles and cultures developed in the past, elsewhere in the world, had created such a wave that swept over the entire world for some time. An anti-wave, replacing such waves, emerged soon. It wiped off the previous influence. The Vedic culture, however, has proved to be an exception in this regard. There had been periods, when the Vedic culture became weak, especially under foreign rules. But it re-emerged every time, and whenever it re-emerged, it did not destroy other sects, it assimilated them within itself.

Adaptability of Vedic culture – Vedic Culture its values and systems have survived the vicissitudes of time, saved itself, so far, by erosion from within and assault from outside only because of its adaptability. It has taken different shades and meaning with changing times and places. Its character during Indus Valley Civilization was altogether different from what exists today.

It has carefully nurtured and preserved the culture of each identity, coming into its fold, it has also absorbed the good points of other cultures also, which has enriched the composite culture of India. More than anywhere else in the world, it holds a multitude of thoughts, processes them and practices them. There has been co-existence of varied belief, pattern and thought due to inter-mixing and cultural mingling.

It is still in a transient phase. The multi-centricity of Indian society has given it a syncretic character, a pluralistic tradition and an absorptive nature of internalizing alien influences. That is why, it presents one of the oldest social institution and a continuous and uninterrupted living culture still existing in the whole world.

Only after raising oneself from ignorance, a person could be able to understand the greatness of the Vedic values and its Sanatan Dharma. Like a jeweller, a knowledgeable person should spot out gems from amongst the worthless pebbles added into it with the passage of time. He    should pick up only useful ideas and leave all undesired obsolete elements developed into the system.

This gold mine of Vedic Philosophy, its values and systems have inspired not only Indians, but foreigners as well. Intellectuals from various countries have translated it in their own languages and reinterpreted it for a rational mind.

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[i]            Manusmriti VI 4,5,6,14,16,26 and Yajur III 45,46,51,54.